John  3*..*ett 


.,-.,'.-. 
LEAYITT  ^COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS, 

Desire  to  call  'the  attention  of  Physicians,  Medical  Students, 
Teachers,  Parents,  Scholars,  and  the  reading  public  generally,  to 
the  following  series  of  Physiologies  ;  as  they  believe  them,  &om 
the  result  of  the  examinations  of  the  most  competent  authorities, 
to  be  the  very  best  books,  on  those  subjects,  to  be  found  at  the 
present  day  in  the  English  language. 

LAMBERT'S 
PHYSIOLOGICAL  SEEIES. 

MULLER'S  PHYSIOLOGY—  translated  from  the  German—  with 
Notes  and  Addenda  ;  including  every  discovery  in  Physiology, 
to  the  latest  moment,  with  much  original  matter  ;  by  T.  S.  LAM- 
BERT, M.  D.  Printed  on  excellent  paper,  in  the  best  syle,  with 
cuts.  2  vols.  8vo.,  pp.  1900.  Price  $3. 

This  is  Muller's  great  work  entire,  and  for  Physicians  and  Medi- 
cal Students  it  is,  in  its  present  form,  the  best  work  extant.  It  is  pub- 
lished in  numbers,  and  sold  at  cost,  at  the  request  of  the  Editor,  that 
a  book  of  such  rare  value  may  thus  come  into  the  hands  of  every 
teacher  and  physician.  (See  Editor's  Preface.) 

*  "  Nine  physicians  in  ten  of  a  large  number  consulted,  have  preferred  that 
the  work  should  be  issued  in  numbers.  *"*  There  will  be  20  or  21  of  96  pp.  each. 
*  The  first  will  be  furnished  at  25  cts.,  the  succeeding  numbers  at  not  more  than 
12V  cts.  each.  If  more  than  2000  are  demanded,  the  price  of  the  numbers  succeeding 
the  first  will  be  less,  in  proportion  to  the  demand.  The  second  number  will  not  there- 
fore appear  for  at  least  three  months  from  the  first,  which  can  be  had  by  safely  inclos- 
ing 25*cts.,  or  Post  Office  Stamps  to  that  amount,  and  direc'.ing  it  to  the  publishers. 
State  the  ordinary  residence  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  to  be  sent,  that  he  may  be 
notified  of  the  issue  of  the  second  number,  and  also  please  state  if  lie  wish  the  first  to 
examine,  or  if  he  wish  the  whole  work.  '  * 


POPULAR  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  By  T.  S.  LAM- 
BERT,  M.  D.  Elegantly  illustrated  by  twenty-eight  very  instruc- 
tive lithographic  figures,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  wood  en- 
gravings ;  beautifully  bound.  1  vol.,  large  duodecimo  ;  with 
questions  separate.  Over  450  closely  printed  pages.  Price  $1  25. 

It  is,  without  doubt,  the  best  book  now  to  be  obtained,  for  higher 
classes  of  scholars,  and  for  readers  generally,  and  as  a  first  book  for  medi- 
cal students,  (or,  it  is  so  pronounced  by  physfciaus  who  have  examined 


IMPORTANT    WORKS. 

it),  as  it  comprehends  all  the  practical  and  interesting  truths  of  Ana- 
tomy, Physiology,  Pathology,  Hygiene,  and  Therapeutics,  which  would 
be  valued  by  the  general  reader,  divested  of  technical  terms,  and  pre- 
sented before  the  mind  in  a  very  attractive  manner.  It  may  also  be 
relied  on  for  correctness,  (a  most  important  paint  in  case  of  these  sub- 
jects,) not  only  on  account  of  its  author,  but  because  it  has  received 
the  commendations  of  the  most  distinguished  authority  in  the  world, 
after  most  thorough  examinations.  Its  utility  as  a  class  book,  both 
as  to  the  interesting  and  valuable  nature  of  the  work,  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  taught,  is  abundantly  testified  by  teachers  of  the 
first  standing  in  the  estimation  of  the  community. 


PRACTICAL  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  PATHO- 
LOGY; HYGIENE  AND  THERAPEUTICS.  By  T.  S, 
LAMBERT,  M.  D.  Beautifully  executed,  with  five  colored 
plates,  and  one  hundred  illustrative  engravings.  1  vol.,  pp. 
251.  Questions  at  bottoms  of  pages.  Price  75  cts. 

The  author  has  here  attempted  to  meet  the  wishes  of  a  large  class 
of  readers  and  scholars,  and  to  present,  in  a  simple  form,  the  great 
practical  truths  of  Physiology,  and  such  as  every  one  ought  to  know, 
in  as  condensed  a  form  as  possible,  and  he  has  succeeded  most  admir- 
ably. The  subjects  are  treated  upon  an  entirely  new  and  original 
plan,  and  it  is  believed,  will  be  found  by  many  teachers,  to  exactly 
meet  their  wants.  It  also  contains  considerable  original  matter,  arid 
of  such  character  as  to  warrant  its  presentation  to  the  most  advanced 
physiological  scholar,  as  worthy  hi*  perusal. 

fmi  SBnnlt 

PICTORIAL  PHYSIOLOGY.    Pp.  96.    Price  37£  cts. 
By  T.  S.  LAMBERT,  M.  D. 

This  is  for  the  youngest  class  of  scholars,  and  intended  to  excite 
in  their  minds  a  desire  to  know  themselves,  and  to  study  the  wis- 
dom and  greatness  of  the  Creator,  as  it  is  exhibited  in  their  own 
bodies. 


COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY,  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

By  T.  S.  LAMBERT,  M.  D. 

This  is  now  in  the  course  of  preparation.  It  will  comprise  a  de- 
scription of  home  animals,  and  how  to  take  care  of  them  most  profit- 
ably to  them  and  to  their  owners.  It  promises  to  ba  a  work  of  much 
value  and  interest. 


NEW   AND    IMPORTANT    WORKS*  >  3 

VEGETABLE    PHYSIOLOGY. 
By  T.  S.  LAMBERT,  M.  D. 

This  will  be  published  either  as  an  appendix  to  the  preceding,  or  in 
a  volume  by  itself,  as  the  size  of  the  preceding  shall  make  advisable. 
It  will  be  a  practical  consideration  of  the  necessities  of  plants,  and 
how,  and  where,  and  when,  to  raise  them  most  profitably,  and  will 
doubtless  be  found  a  work  of  noticeable  merit. 

(Teachers  by  requesting  it,  post  paid,  can  be  furnished  by  mail  with  either  of  the 
above  books,  with  the  covers  removed.) 

LAMBERT'S 

ANATOMICAL    AND    PHYSIOLOGICAL 
ILLUSTRATIVE  PLATES. 

First  Series,  6 ;  Second  Series,  12 ;  Third  Series,  24  (three  feet  by  two}. 

BEAUTIFULLY  COLORED. 

Price  50  cts.  for  the  first,  25  cts.  for  the  succeeding,  or  $2  for  the 
first,  S3  75  for  the  second,  and  only  $6  for  the  third. 

These  are  not  mere  outline  plates.  Nineteen  are  exact  copies 
of  the  French  Plates  of  Bougery  and  Jacobs,  the  best  and  most  beau- 
tiful in  the  world.  Five  are  original,  and  believed  to  possess  as  much 
or  more  merit,  than  the  rest ;  and  the  whole  exhibit  in  detail  every 
part  of  the  system  in  a  superlative  manner.  In  every  respect,  they 
are  unequalled  by  any  in  this  country.  They  can  be  furnished  on 
cloth,  with  rollers,  at  ten  dollars  the  set.  The  first  is,  however,  the 
best  way. 

(For  Physicians  there  are  25  Plates  in  a  set.) 

(Experiments  are  now  being  made,  by  which  it  is  expected  a  portion  of  them  can 
DC  prepared  in  a  new  way.  If  they  can,  they  will  be  offered  at  a  still  lower  price.) 


We  are  aware  that  we  have  used  strong  language ;  but  from 
justice  to  the  merits  of  the  works,  we  have  felt  bound  to  do  so ; 
and  feel  warranted  that  the  works  will  bear  us  out,  since  they  have 
received  such  recommendations  as  the  following,  of  which  a  few 
are  selected,  from  many  of  similar  import. 

From  Rev.  M.  Hopkins,  M.  D.,D.  D.,'the  distinguished  Pres.  of  Williams  College. 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGE. 

DEAR  SIR,— It  would  give  me  pleasure  to  see  your  works  on  Phyisology  widely  cir- 
culated.   It  belongs  to  physicians  to  understand  disease  and  its  laws,  but  every  man 


IMPORTANT    WORKS. 

ought  to  have,  such  a  knowledge  of  his  own  frame,  as  to  be  able  to  understand,  and 
apply  intelligently,  the  laws  of  health..  This  would  greatly  tend  to  preserve  health 
where  it  exists,  and  to  prevent  quackery  in  sickness ;  and  such  knowledge,  I  think, 
your  book  well  calculated  to  promote. 

Yours  truly, 

M.  HOPKINS. 

Extract  from  the  Centre  (Pa.)  Democrat.  Written  by  a  Physician. 
"  Every  one  that  reads  can  understand,  and  no  one  can  read  and  understand  with- 
out being  benefited,  and  paid  many  times  over  for  his  trouble  and  expense.  It  is  truly 
a  profitable  book  to  buy,  and  should  be  in  every  family.  A  book  of  questions  adapts 
it  to  the  use  of  schools.  There  is  certainly  no  better  subject  for  a  child  to  study ;  and  as 
correctness  is  so  essential  in  these  branches,  this  book  is  to  be  recommended  above  any 
other  published.  We  are  pleased  to  hear  it  is  used  in  almost  all  the  superior  schools 
in  our  state,  displacing  every  other  work  on  the  same  subject  with  which  it  has  come 
in  contact.  It  is  beautifully  executed,  being  handsomely  bound  and  elegantly  illis- 
trated  by  some  thirty  colored  lithographic  figures  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  additional 
woodcuts.  The  following  testimonials  are  from  the  highest  medical  authorities  in 
our  country,  or  indeed  in  the  world.V 

From  Dr.  Mott,  of  world  wide  celebrity,  Prof,  of  Surgery  in  New-  fork  University. 

"  NEW-YORK,  Dec.  12,  1849. 

"  I  have  carefully  looked  over  some  parts  of  Dr.  Lambert's  volume  on  Anatomy 
and  Physiology.  The  style  is  easy  and  perspicuous,  and  ft  is  well  calculated  to  in- 
struct the  medical  student,  and  even  the  practitioner,  by  being  posted  up  to  the  present 
time.  It  appears  to  me  the  author  has  executed  his  task  admirably  in  adapting  it  to 
the  general  reader. 

VALENTINE  MOTT." 

From  Dr.  Draper,  Prof,  of  Chemistry  and  Physiology  in  New-  York  University, 
and  the  well-known  author  of  several  interesting  and  valuable  works  on  Chemistry. 

"  NEW- YORK,  Dec.  1849. 

"  DEAR  SIR,— I  have  examined  your  book  on  Popular  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
and  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  it  is  very  well  adapted  to  the  end  you  have  in 
view,  as  a  school  book  I  think,  too,  the  general  reader  will  find  in  it  a  great  deal  of 
valuable  information.  The  great  imperfection  of  our  modern  systems  of  education  is, 
that  they  teach  us  much  that  is  of  no  kind  of  interest  to  us,  while  that  which  concerns 
us  more  nearly— a  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  our  own  bodies— is 
neglected.  I  hope  the  introduction  of  your  book  may  remove  this  evil. 

Yours  truly. 

JOHN  W.  DRAPER." 

From  Prof.  J.  C.  Warren,  one  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  the  ranks  of  the  medical 
profession  in  this  or  any  country. 

"  BOSTON,  Feb.  7,  1850. 

"DEAR  SIR, — Your  book,  entitled  "  Popular  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  I  have  ex- 
amined with  some  care,  and  have  read  sufficient  to  enable  me  to  form  a  judgment  of 
its  design  and  execution.  The  book  seems  to  me  well  adapted  to  the  accomplishment 
of  the  object  for  which  it  is  designed ;  to  be  well  written,  and  free  from  any  of  those 
objections  which  delicacy  might  present  to  the  study  of  a  work  on  anatomy. 
"  I  am  with  respect,  your  friend  and  servant, 

"J.  C   WARREN." 


NEW    AND    IMPORTANT    WORKS.  5 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  long  notice  of  the  work  in  the  Boston  Medical 
Surgical  Journal : 

"These  thoughts  have  been  suggested  to  my  mind  while  reading  a  popular  work 
on  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  by  Dr.  T.  S-  Lambert,  of  New- York.  This  work  is  cer- 
tainly the  best  of  any  thing  of  the  kind  that  I  have  ever  examined,  for  our  higher 
schools  and  colleges,  and  for  the  general  reader.  Dr.  L.  writes  with  great  ease  and 
perspicuity,  and  as  one  who  is  intensely  interested  in  his  subject.  He  forgets  all  tech 
nicalities,  except  so  far  as  they  are  absolutely  necessary  in  elucidating  the  subject,  but 
still  discusses  the  general  principles  with  such  copiousness  and  clearness  as  to  give 
the  reader  a  good  understanding  of  his  own  system.  This  work  shox  Id  be  in  the  pos- 
session and  read  by  every  one  who  would  keep  up  with  the  intelligence  >f  the  times. 
No  library  should  be  considered  complete  without  it ;  and  no  one  should  be  considered 
as  having  a  common  school  education  who  is  not  familiar  with  the  general  principles 
of  anatomy  and  physiology." 

From  Rev.  W.  H.  Tyler,  A.  M.,  and  Lady,  the  well  known  Principals  of  one  of  the 
best  institutions  in  the  United  States.  For  several  years,  during  some  weeks 
each  summer,  Dr.  L.  has  been  in  the  habit  of  lecturing  to  the  young  ladies  under 
their  care,  and  they  are  therefore  able  to  judge  of  the  effect  of  his  ideas,  when  car- 
ried out.  In  the  last  year's  report  of  that  Institution,  it  is  mentioned  as  remark- 
able, that,  '•'•for  the  entire  year,  in  a  family  numbering  more  than  two  hundred 
young  ladies,  the  physician's  bill  was  not  fifteen  dollars."  It  surely  shows  a  rare 
state  of  good  health,  and  that  young  ladies  will  be  benefited  by  physiology  when 
properly  taught. 

"  YOUKG  LADIES  INSTITUTE,  Pittsfield,  Oct.  12,  1850." 

DEAR  SIR, — The  subject  of  your  works  intimately  concerns  all ;  and  your  treat- 
ment of  it,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  is  scientifically  correct,  and  certainly  it  is  new  and 
entertaining.  With  our  view  of  the  value  of  an  early  acquaintance  of  the  great  laws 
of  health,  and  of  the  pre-eminent  merits  of  your  several  works,  as  judged  from  their 
long  tried  influence  over  a  large  collection  of  young  persons,  we  greatly  desire  to  see 
some  one  of  them  introduced,  as  a  general  text  book,  into  every  school  in  the  country. 
As  for  yourself,  by  as  much  as  prevention  of  disease  is  better  than  cure,  so  far  must 
your  reward  exceed  even  the  ample  measure  that  is  justly  bestowed  upon  the  meri- 
torious in  your  beneficent  profession. 

Yours  sincerely, 

W.  H.  TYLER, 
E.  C.TYLER, 
Dr.  T.  S.  Lambert.  Principals. 

From  Rev.  Thos.  M.  Cann,  A.  M.,  one  of  the  best  teachers,  and  of  one  of  the  finest 
schools  in  Pennsylvania. 

"  Young  Ladies'  Institute,  Easton,  Pa. 

"  Having  used  Dr.  Lambert's,  among  other  works  on  Physiology,  in  my  sohool,  I 
feel  prepared  to  give  it  the  decided  preference,  because  of  its  simplicity  of  arrange- 
ment, its  beauty,  ease,  and  clearness  of  diction  ;  and,  I  might  say,  its  perfect  adapta- 
tion to  that  class  of  minds,  for  which  it  was  designed.  Its  freedom  from  technicalities, 
and  the  practical  tendency  of  its  remarks,  must  commend  it  to  every  teacher  and  general 
reader. 

THOS.  M.  CANN." 


NEW    AND    IMPORTANT    WORKS. 


From  James  H.  Coffin,  Professor  of  Math,  and  Physics. 

"  LA  FAYETTE  COLLEGB. 

"  I  have  looked  over  Dr.  Lambert's  treatise  on  Anatomy  and"  Physiology,  and  ex- 
amined some  parts  of  it  with  considerable  care  ;  and  though  I  do  not  consider  mysell 
competent  to  decide  upon  the  merits  of  a  work  of  that  character,  I  can  cheerfully  say, 
that  my  impression  of  it  is  favorable,  and  that  it  appears  to  me  to  be  well  adapted  to 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed. 

JAMES  H.  COFFIN." 

From  the  Carlisle  Volunteer. 

"  The  most  unprecedented  sale  which  the  work  has  found,  sufficiently  indicates  its 
value.  It  is  now  (though  only  two  months  from  the  time  of  its  first  publication)  used 
in  most  of  the  best  schools  throughout  this  State,  having  quickly  displaced  every 
other  with  which  it  has  come  in  competition,  which  its  evident  superiority  well  enti- 
tles it  to  do." 

From  the  Boston  Argus. 

"If  we  do  not  mistake,  in  looking  over  the  book,  we  have  seen  some  of  the  noblest 
and  most  improving  sentiments  that  ever  came  from  the  pen  of  any  man." 
From  Robert  E.  Young,  Esq.,  Editor  of  the  "Post,"  and  also  unexperienced 
Teacher  of  Public  Schools.  His  opinion  will,  therefore,  be  highly  valued,  espe- 
cially as  it  was  voluntarily  given,  and  without  cause  of  bias. 
"LAMBERT'S  SECOND  BOOK. — Practical  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Pathology; 
Hygiene  and  Therapeutics.  By  T.  S.  LAMBERT,  M.  D.  New- York.  October,  1850. 
— We  have  just  been  furnished  with  the  above  work,  published  by  Leavitt  &  Co., 
New-York.  It  has  been  prepared  from  the  Author's  larger  work,  and  expressly 
adapted  to  schools ;  and  we  notice  that  notwithstanding  its  long,  and,  to  the  general 
reader,  somewhat  formidable  title,  that  its  divisions  of  the  subject  and  the  definition  of 
its  professional  terms  are  of  the  simplest  and  most  intelligent  sort.  Its  classification 
of  the  parts  of  the  human  body  is  based  upon  a  natural  division  of  their  uses  palpable 
to  the  common  mind,  and  possesses  a  clearness,  force,  and  unity  of  arrangement  that 
cannot  but  fix  in  the  mind  of  the  student  a  distinct  and  indelible  picture  of  the  subject 
treated.  Its  phraseology  has  evidently  been  studied  with  care,  and  rather  invites  than 
otherwise  the  practical  examination  of  the  student.  In  both  of  the  above  particulars, 
this  book  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  those  upon  the  same  subjects  now  in  use  in  the 
schools.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  work,  questions  have  been  adapted  to  the  text,  and 
all  simplified  to  the  capacity  of  the  child  ;  and  throughout  the  subject  matter  is  ex- 
plained by  reference  to  simple  facts  in  the  knowledge  of  all.  It  is  illustrated  with 
colored  plates,  and  a  numerous  set  of  wood  engravings. 

"  And  not  least  in  a  school  book,  the  work  presents  a  handsome  binding,  and  a  neat 
typographical  appearance,  which  do  credit  to  the  publishers.  We  can  hardly  con- 
ceive how  a  work  of  such  artistic  merit  can  be  furnished  at  the  published  price,  and 
rather  believe  this  a  mistake.  Physiology,  as  a  study,  has  been  already  extensively 
introduced  into  the  common  schools ;  from  our  experience  as  a  teacher,  we  are  free  to 
say  under  great  disadvantages  from  the  want  of  a  proper  text-book.  This  difficulty  is 
now  removed,  and  we  feel  confident  that  no  parent  or  teacher  who  becomes  acquainted 
with  this  work  will  use  any  other." 


NEW    AND    IMPORTANT    WORKS.  7 

From  Prof.  Burnkam,  a  Teacher  of  experience,  Principal  of  the  English  Depart- 
ment in  the  well-known  Burr  Seminary,  and  also  Superintendent  of  Public 
Schools. 

"MANCHESTER,  BURR  SEMINARY,  October  30, 1850. 
"  DR.  LAMBERT  : 

"  DEAR  SIR, — I  have  attentively  and  for  practical  purposes  examined  your  books 
on  Physiology,  more  particularly  the  Second  Book,  which  I  consider  better  than  any 
with  which  I  am  acquainted,  to  be  used  as  a  school  book,  on  the  subjects  of  which  it 
treats.  The  intelligent  and  faithful  teacher  cannot  fail  to  make  it  an  interesting  and 
valuable  branch  of  study.  Many  excellences  might  be  named ;  I  will  specify  but 
one,  as  rare  :  the  discriminating  language  in  which  the  questions  are  put  to  the  pupil. 
I  should  be  pleased  to  have  this  book  introduced  into  the  schools  of  this  town,  and  to 
hear  that  its  use  was  general.  I  think,  also,  that  your  book  will  be  found  exceedingly 
interesting  to  the  general  reader,  and  be  used  with  great  advantage  as  a  reference 
book. 

"  Yours  truly, 

«W,  A.  BURNHAM." 


LEAVITT    &    CO. 

Also  publish  largely  and  trade  extensively  in  every  kind  of 
School  and  Text  Books,  and  all  Standard  Works  upon  the 
Sciences ;  also,  Theological,  Medical,  Legal,  Historical, 
Poetical,  and  Miscellaneous  Works,  and  the  best  class  of 
light  literature,  of  a  moral  and  improving  character  ;  also, 
Children's  Books,  Blank  Books,  Paper,  Quills,  &c. 

Their  arrangements  are  such,  that  they  can,  and  will,  furnish  teach- 
ers, professors,  and  all  interested  in  education,  at  lower  prices  than 
can  be  found  any  where  else. 

They  will  also  supply  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  LIBRARIES  on  tje  same 
terms. 

In  case  of  SCHOOL,  SOCIETY,  and  all  such  Libraries  as  have  a 
benevolent  character,  they  will  make  the  price  of  useful  works  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  absolute  cost. 

THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARIES.  They  have  not  only  unsurpassed  but 
unequalled  facilities  for  supplying  these  at  low  prices,  and  will  do  so. 

Theological,  Medical,  Legal,  and  general  Students,  just  commenc- 
ing active  life,  and  forming  libraries,  will  have  an  especial  allowance 
made  to  them  on  that  account,  and  can  obtain  a  greater  number  of 
the  best  class  of  assorted  books,  than  elsewhere,  for  the  same  money. 
In  short,  a  fine  library  at  a  bargain. 

To  Merchants,  they  would  say  with  the  greatest  confidence,  that 
their  assortment  of  Pictorial,  Gift,  School,  and  Children's  Books,  is 
of  the  most  desirable  character,  and  offers  great  inducements  to  the 
purchaser,  both  with  respect  to  quality  and  price. 

From  the  opportunities  LEAVITT  &  Co.  have  of  obtaining  all  their 
stock,  which  they  do  not  themselves  publish,  at  the  lowest  rates, 
from  their  long  experience,  and  from  their  determination  not  to  be. 
undersold,  they  feel  assured  they  can  promise  to  give  satisfaction,  and 
all  things  considered,  greater  than  can  be  obtained  elsewhere. 

All  good  orders,  from  far  or  near,  will  be  promptly  answered,  as 
well,  and  at  the  same  prices,  as  if  the  buyer  were  present. 

They  would  therefore  solicit  those  in  want  of  any  kind  cf  Books, 
either  to  call  and  examine,  or  to  send  them  one  trial  order. 


Tiff.  1. 


Pll 


Fig.  3. 


TV? 


pi. 


PI  3. 


\. 


Fiy.Z- 


PI  4- 


PRACTICAL 

AIATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY, 

AND 

PATHOLOGY; 

HYGIENE  AND  THERAPEUTICS. 


BY 

T.  S.  LAMBERT,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  Pittsfield  (Young  Ladies')  Institute ; 

Author  Of  "Notes  to  Miiller's  Physiology,"  "Popular  Anatomy  and  Physiology," 

"  Pictorial  Physiology,"  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED    BY    FIVE    COLORED    PLATES    AND    OVER    ONE 
HUNDRED   WOOD   ENGRAVINGS. 


NEW-YORK : 
LEAVITT    AND    COMPANY, 

191    BROADWAY. 
1851. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 
T.  S.  LAMBERT, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New- York. 


JOHN  P.  TROW, 

PRINTER  &  STEREOTTPEB, 

49,  51  &  53  Ann  Street 


TO  TEACHERS, 

AS    A    TESTIMONIAL     OF    ESTEEM    FOR 

THE  MEMBERS  OF  ONE  OF  THE  MOST  USEFUL  PROFESSIONS 
A     MAN     CAN     ADOPT, 

AND  TO  WHICH 
THE   HIGHEST   MEED   OF   HONOR   SHOULD   BE   GIVEN, 

AND   FROM   A 
SENSE   OF   DUTY   TO  THOSE   WHOSE   CARE   OF   MY   EARLY  EDUCATION 

BESTOWS  UPON  ME  A  DAILY  BLESSING, 

AND  WITH  A  HOPE  THAT  IT  WILL  SOMEWHAT  LIGHTEN 

THE   ARDUOUS  LABORS   OF   THEIR   AVOCATION, 


IS   RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED, 
BY 

THE  AUTHOR. 


ADDEESS  TO  THE  READER 

THE  following  pages  have  been  prepared  at  the  urgent  solicitation 
of  many  teachers  and  others.  They  said,  to  quote  the  language  of 
one,  "That  in  addition  to  the  'Popular  Anatomy  and  Physiology,' 
the  public  demanded  a  work  of  smaller  size,  and  which  could  of  course 
be  afforded  at  a  still  lower  price,  but  which  should  at  the  same  time 
contain  a  great  deal  of  practical  matter,  and  exhibit  the  same  general 
principles  in  the  same  intelligible,  interesting,  and  admirable  manner. 
Thus  a  large  class  of  scholars  and  readers  would  obtain  a  great 
amount  of  valuable  knowledge,  of  which  otherwise  they  would  be 
denied.  This  alone  should  be  an  inducement."  It  is  much  more 
difficult  to  bring  a  "great  deal  of  matter"  into  a  small  space,  than 
would  be  thought,  at  first— much  more  than  to  spread  a  little  over  a 
large  space.  But  the  unexpected  success,  approbation,  and  sale,  the 
larger  work  met  with,  in  so  short  a  time  after  its  publication,  laid  me 
under  obligations,  and  gave  me  encouragement,  to  undertake  the  exe- 
cution of  this.  It  was  not  thought  best  to  make  it  an  abridgment, 
which  would  have  been  very  easy,  but  very  much  .lessened  its  value. 
After  much  study  and  reflection  as  to  what  course  should  be  taken,  a 
plan  fortunately  suggested  itself,  which  was  at  once  original,  and 
seemed,  if  successfully  carried  out,  to  be  exceedingly  well  adapted  to 
the  purpose ;  which  was,  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  the  reader  an  entire 
and  systematic  idea  of  what  the  body,  and  the  action  of  its  various 
parts  were  for,  and  what  ought  to  be  done  by  us  to  cause  the  dif- 


54  3",  08 


16  ADDRESS  TO  THE  READER. 

ferent  parts  of  it  to  best  fulfil  their  duties.  It  was  desirable  to  have 
this  knowledge  so  presented,  that  the  mind  would  understand  the 
general  principles  of  action  that  should  govern  us,  and  thus  be  able 
to  apply  them  to  the  particular  case  in  all  the  necessary  circumstances 
of  life  in  which  a  person  is  placed.  In  following  out  this  plan, 
many  new  truths  have  been  discovered,  or  observed  in  a  more  con- 
spicuous light  than  before.  Testing  these  has  somewhat  delayed  the 
work  beyond  what  was  promised.  This  will  not  probably  be  re- 
gretted, since  some  of  these  are  so  interesting,  and  so  practically 
valuable,  that  the  person  who  is  most  conversant  with  physiology,  will 
find  this  little  work  to  well  repay  him  for  an  attentive  perusal.  In  all 
respects  the  work  will  also  be  found  to  contain,  or  be  based  upon,  the 
most  recent  discoveries  in  physiology,  and  the  practical  parts  of  the 
other  branches  of  medical  science.  I  believe  it  may  also  be  relied  on 
as  correct  in  every  statement  of  facts  or  inferences  drawn  from  them. 
In  other  respects  it  has,  I  doubt  not,  many  faults.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  kindness  of  the  reader  will  pardon  them,  and  that  he  will  con- 
sider that  our  best  human  friends  have  faults,  on  account  of  which 
many  times  we  love  them  the  better,  as  they  do  not  seem  to  be  more 
perfect  than  ourselves. 

* 

TO  TEACHERS. 

I  have  endeavored  to  do  all  that  was  in  my  power  to  make  the 
teaching  of  this  book  easy  and  pleasant.  I  feel  an  enthusiastic  de- 
sire that  every  person  should  become  interested  in  the  science  of 
physiology,  it  is  so  captivating  to  the  mind,  and  so  useful ;  and  I  shall 
always  be  ready  to  lend  any  assistance  to  teachers  that  is  in  my 
power,  either  by  answering  letters  of  inquiry,  giving  lectures,  or  the 
like ;  and  I  shall  feel  obliged  to  them  if  they  will  communicate  to 
me  any  result  of  their  experience,  which  they  think  will  be  useful. 
For  such  tokens  of  friendship  as  I  have  already  received,  I  return  my 
most  sincere  thanks.  Some  think  the  best  plan  of  teaching  this  par- 


ADDRESS    TO    TEACHERS.  17 

ticular  branch  of  science,  is  to  have,  upon  some  or  all  the  days  in  the 
week,  a  few  pages  read  aloud  before  the  whole  school  by  a  class, 
each  member  of  which  is  expected  to  be  able  to  answer  all  questions 
upon  the  lesson,  while  the  whole  school  may  be  questioned  upon  the 
general  topics  and  inferences.  For  this  purpose,  and  for  a  similar 
exercise  of  a  class,  many  questions  have  been  put  in  italics.  These 
will  suggest  others.  The  benefit  of  this  course  is,  that  the  subject  is 
taught  as  it  were  by  lectures,  and  brought  before  every  individual 
of  the  school  constantly,  some  of  whom  would  not,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  obtain  books  and  enter  a  class.  It  occupies  but  little 
time,  and  a  great  deal  of  good  will  be  done,  not  only  to  the  scholar, 
but  to  his  parents  through  him.  To  teach  a  scholar,  likewise,  the 
most  proper  way  to  acquire  knowledge,  the  topics  of  the  books  have 
been  summed  up  at  the  close,  and  the  last  division  has  been  left  with- 
out questions.  Either  in  this  or  any  way  he  chooses  to  adopt,  it  is 
believed  that  the  teacher  will  find  his  labor  lightened  by  this  book. 
Most  that  is  desirable  on  his  part  is,  that  the  lesson  he  gives  be 
short,  thoroughly  acquired,  often  reviewed,  and  that  the  answers 
given  by  the  scholar  be  full,  and  when  possible,  well  illustrated  from 
his  own  observations.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  become,  in 
your  hands,  an  instrument  of  great  usefulness.  Yours  is  one  of  the 
noblest  and  most  honest  professions  that  can  be  pursued,  and  you  are 
placed  in  a  situation  for  doing  an  immense  amount  of  good,  not  for 
this  generation  merely,  but  for  many.  Because  its  usefulness  is  not 
appreciated  by  the  public  as  it  should  be,  I  know  it  is  often  not  paid 
as  it  ought  to  be.  But  the  remedy  of  the  evil  is  partly  in  your  own 
hands.  For  will  not  a  parent  when  he  finds  your  teachings  save  him 
money,  be  willing  to  give  you  a  share  of  it  1  The  good  which  must 
result  from  giving  a  child  knowledge  of  a  practical  character,  for  in- 
stance, of  physiology,  must  soon  repay  the  teacher  who  has  done  it. 
That  the  present  work  will  have  the  effect  to  please  the  scholar  and 
satisfy  the  parent,  and  thus  make  the  teacher  more  esteemed  and 
better  paid,  is  what  I  sincerely  wish  and  believe. 


18  ADDRESS    TO    PARENTS. 


TO    PAKENTS. 

No  man  would  think  of  ploughing  his  land  with  a  wooden  plough 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancients,  and  every  one  would  laugh  even  at 
the  Indian  who  should  endeavor  to  hollow  out  his  canoe  with  a  sharp 
stone,  when  he  could  readily  get  a  fine  axe,  and  save  more  than  time 
enough  to  pay  for  it.  There  are  improvements  in  science,  in  books, 
and  in  teaching,  as  well  as  in  mechanics  and  farming  utensils.  One  of 
the  greatest  of  these  is  the  introduction  of  physiology  into  schools. 
The  cost  of  it  is  nothing  compared  with  its  profit.  A  poor  man  cannot 
afford  to  be  without  the  knowledge  it  teaches.  The  rich  man  cannot  en- 
joy his  wealth  without  health.  It  is  a  subject  of  such  importance,  that 
the  cost  of  the  best  books,  and  those  which  will  most  easily,  plea- 
santly, and  perfectly  teach  this  department  of  science,  is  nothing  com- 
pared with  the  value  and  importance  of  having  them  in  your  child's 
hands.  Considered  as  a  matter  of  dollars  and  cents  merely,  it  is  so. 
For  if  by  an  idea  your  child  gains,  it  is  saved  a  fit  of  sickness,  will  it 
not  be  money  in  your  pocket  1  In  presenting  this  work  for  your  ac- 
ceptance, let  me  assure  you  that  every  effort  has  been  made  to  give 
you  a  valuable  consideration  for  the  expenditure  you  have  made  for 
your  child.  Will  you  not  be  rewarded  if  this  book  shall  be  the 
means  of  preserving  his  life  to  you  for  a  single  year  1  Still  more 
would  you  feel  yourself  repaid  if  it  should  be  the  means  of  saving  him 
from  a  life  of  vice.  I  wish  that  you  would  attentively  read  the  book 
yourself,  to  see  if  it  will  not  have  that  tendency,  and  also  that  you 
may  assist  the  teacher  in  teaching  your  child  in  learning  its  contents, 
as  well  also  as  that  you  may  yourself  become  all  the  more  interested 
in  one  of  the  most  satisfying  branches  of  science.  That  your  heart 
may  be  gratified,  and  your  parental  kindness  repaid  for  this  and 
every  other  good  act  toward  your  child,  by  his  prolonged  life,  pre- 
served health,  and  filial  affection,  is  the  sincere  wish  of  the  writer. 


ADDRESS    TO    SCHOLARS.  19 

TO   SCHOLAKS. 

The  study  you  are  about  to  commence,  my  dear  young  friends, 
is  no  task.  It  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  things  in  which  you 
could  engage,  and  will  assist  in  making  you  useful  to  yourselves 
and  others,  and  in  increasing  your  own  and  others'  happiness. 
I  have  endeavored  to  make  it  pleasant  in  every  way,  and  I  hope 
you  will  find  it  so.  To  acquire  a  knowledge  of  it  thoroughly, 
you  must  take  short  lessons  and  look  into  them  thoroughly,  so  as 
never  to  repeat  parrot-like  what  you  do  not  understand.  Seek  out  by 
questioning  the  teacher,  what  you  cannot  learn  yourself,  but  learn  all 
by  yourself  that  you  can.  It  is  very  important  for  your  credit  in  the 
world  that  you  do  this.  The  study  you  are  commencing  has  become 
a  very  fashionable  one,  so  to  speak.  A  few  years  ago  some  senti- 
mental young  lady  would  occasionally  be  found,  who  thought  it  was 
hardly  proper  for  her  to  study  the  condition  of  the  lungs  and  blood- 
vessels, as  if  she  had  not  any  herself.  But  the  days  of  that  ignorance 
have  gone  by,  for  it  has  been  found  that  those  who  studied  physiology 
were  able  to  make  themselves  more  beautiful  and  attractive  than 
those  who  did  not ;  that  a  person  who  understood  physiology  could 
labor  to  better  advantage,  study  more  profitably,  enjoy  better  health, 
and  be  more  happy  than  one  who  did  not.  It  has  therefore  now  come 
to  be  understood,  that  every  boy  and  girl  ought  to  study  physiology, 
and  that  the  more  they  know  of  it  the  better.  It  is  one  of  the 
studies  which  you  will  also  find  it  easy  to  remember  if  you  acquire  it 
thoroughly  as  you  go  over  it,  and  thus  every  scholar  may  be  able  to 
pass  an  excellent  examination  when  he  is  called  on.  If  you  know  the 
why  and  wherefore  of  things,  you  will  be  able  to  give  explanations  to 
your  parents  and  friends,  which  will  charm  them  by  their  truthfulness 
and  practical  utility,  and  cause  them  to  commend  you,  and  esteem 
your  teacher.  This  is  a  study  likewise  which  you  will  find  of  use  to 
you  almost  every  day  and  hour  of  your  life.  There  are  also  a  great 
many  new  discoveries  to  be  made  in  physiology,  some  of  which  you 


20  ADDRESS    TO    SCHOLARS. 

may  be  the  person  so  fortunate  as  to  make.  If  so,  you  will  be  doing 
more  good  for  mankind  in  the  way  of  relieving  suffering,  than  could 
be  done  in  any  other  way,  and.  at  the  same  time,  give  to  yourselves  an 
imperishable  and  worthy  name  among  men.  It  is  a  study  also  which 
more  than  any  other  I  believe  will  exhibit  to  you  the  goodness  and 
wisdom  of  the  Creator,  and  teach  you  to  raise  your  minds  in  appro- 
priate adoration  to  him  who  governs  the  universe  by  such  perfect  and 
unerring  laws.  Thus  on  every  account  you  may  think  it  fortunate 
that  you  have  been  led  to  take  up  a  study,  which,  if  you  pursue  with 
avidity  and  thoroughness,  you  will  never  have  cause  to  regret. 

NEW-YORK,  October,  1850. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Body  compared  to  a  piece  of  machinery — Meaning  of  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Hy- 
giene, Pathology,  Therapeutics,  Materia  Medica— Course  to  be  pursued  in  the 
Work— Objects  to  be  gained  .  .  .  .  .27 

PAET  I. 

GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    SYSTEM. 

DIVISION  I. 

FIRST   CLASS    OP    ORGANS. 
BOOK  I. 

THE  MIND   AND   ORGANS   WITH   WHICH   TO   THINK. 

The  Mind— The  Brain     .......       31 

BOOK  H. 

ORGANS   USED   IN  FEELING. 

Brains,  Nerves,  and  Organs  of  Sense  ....  36 

BOOK  III. 

ORGANS   USED   IN   PRODUCING   VOLUNTARY  MOTION. 

Brain— Nerves— Muscles— Tendons— Bones— Cartilages— Ligaments,  &c.  .       40 


22  CONTENTS. 

DIVISION  II. 

THE    SECOND   CLASS    OF    ORGANS. 
BOOK  I. 

FIRST  GRAND  DUTY — EXCRETION. 

Systemic  Veins — Right  Heart — Pulmonary  Arteries — Pulmonary  Veins — Left 
Heart— Systemic  Arteries— Lungs— Kidneys— Skin— Liver— Second  Stomach 
and  Colon — Organic  Nervous  System  .  .  .  .  .51 

BOOK  II. 

SECOND  GRAND  DUTY — NUTRITION. 

Nourishment— Cooking— The  Mouth— The  Stomach— The  Second  Stomach— 
The  Pancreas — The  Liver — The  Lacteals — The  Hearts,  Arteries,  and  Veins — 
The  Organic  Nervous  System  .  .  .  .  .69 

BOOK  m. 

THIRD   GRAND   DUTY — TO   KEEP   THE   BODY   WARM. 

Production  of  Heat :— Exercise— Food— Air— The  Lungs— The  Kidneys.  Distri- 
bution of  Heat: — Hearts  and  Bloodvessels — Water— The  Kidneys.  The 
Preservation  of  Heat: — Fat — Clothing.  Hearts  and  Bloodvessels— Organic 
Nervous  System  .  .  .  .  .  .  .78 

BOOK  IV. 

FOURTH  GRAND  DUTY — TO  COOL  THE  BODY. 

Repose— Want  of  Food  and  Air— Water— The  Skin— Hearts  and  Bloodvessels- 
Organic  Nervous  System  .  .  .  .  .  .88 


PART  II. 

PARTICULAR    DESCRIPTION   OF    THE    SYSTEM. 

DIVISION  I. 

FIRST    CLASS    OF    ORGANS. 

BOOK  I. 

ORGANS    OF   VOLUNTARY   MOTION. 

The  Bones— Cartilages — Ligaments — The  Muscles — Tendons — Fasciae — Bursae — 

Cellular  Tissue— Fat— Nerves— Brain  96 


CONTENTS.  23 


BOOK  II. 

ORGANS    OF   SENSATION. 

Internal  Organs.  The  Skin — The  Muscles — Sense  of  Taste  and  of  Smell— The 

Eye— The  Ear— Nerves— Brain— The  Mind          .  .  .  .162 

BOOK  III. 

ORGANS   OF  THOUGHT. 

The  Brain— The  Mind      .  .  .  .  .  .  .192 

DIVISION  II. 

SECOND   CLASS    OF    ORGANS. 
BOOK  I. 

DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 

General  Character— Quantity— Times  of  Eating— Cooking,  and  Temperature  of 
Food  — Drink  — The  Mouth  — Teeth  — Salivary  Glands— Stomach— Gastric 
Juice  -Chyme— Duodenum — Jejunum — Ileum—  Liver  —  Bile  —  Gall  —  Pan- 
creas—Chyle— Lacteals  ......  196 

BOOK  II. 

CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. 

Hearts — Arteries— Capillaries — Veins          .....      225 
BOOK  III. 

RESPIRATORY   ORGANS. 

The  Luri2s— Windpipe—  Mucous  Membrane — Air-cells — Pulmonary  Bloodves- 
sels—Parenchyma—Pleura— Systemic  Bloodvessels— Nerves.  Framework  of 
Chest — Pleura-Costalis.  Inspiratory  Muscles — Expiratory  Muscles — Pro- 
cess of  Breathing— Air,  &c.  The  Voice — Breathing  Apparatus — Epiglottis 
—Larynx — Muscles  of  throat,  tongue,  lips  ;  the  teeth  .  .  .  233 

BOOK  IV. 

EXCRETING   ORGANS. 

The  Lungs — Kidneys— Liver — Second  Stomach — Skin  —  Clothing  —  Bathing— 

Cold?  and  Internal  Congestions  .  .  .  .  251 

CONCLUSION. 

THE  ORGANIC  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  LITHOGRAPHIC  PLATES. 

PL  1,  Fig.  1.  Represents  the  muscles  and  tendons  as  thej  appear  when  the  skin  is 
removed,  except  that  the  external  muscles  are  also  remo^  ed  from  the  left  side  ;  they  are 
shown  upon  the  right  side.  The  direction  of  the  stripes  shows  the  direction  in  which 
the  muscles  and  parts  of  the  muscles  contract,  and  of  course  the  direction  in  which  they 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  motion. 

Fig.  2.  The  bones  of  the  ankle  and  the  internal  muscles  of  the  lower  part  of  the  leg. 
The  tendon  of  84  is  seen  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  turning  around  the  outer  joint 
of  the  ankle  and  under  the  foot,  beneath  which  it  passes  to  be  attached  to  the  bol»e  back 
of  the  great  toe. 

Fig.  3. — Back  portion  of  the  jaw,  the  ear ;  and,  36,  temporal  muscle  attached  to  a 
prominent  point  of  the  jaw,  K. 

Fig.  4. — Lower  portion  of  the  chest,  with  the  front  portion  of  the  ribs  removed  to 
show  the  diaphragm  7,  below  which  is  seen  a  portion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen, 
with  its  front  wall  and  organs  removed.  2,  3,  The  back  lower  edge  of  the  diaphragm, 
the  "pillars"  of  which  are  seen  attached  to  the  back-bone.  The  "front  lower  edge  of 
the  diaphragm  is  lower  than  here  represented,  especially  at  the  side. 

PI.  2,  Fig.  1. — View  of  the  external  muscles  of  the  back,  except  upon  the  left  side, 
where  the  "middle"  layer  of  muscles  is  brought  to  view. 

Fig.  2. — Internal  muscles  of  the  back. 

Fig.  3.,  4. — Muscles  and  tendons  beneath  the  foot. 

PI.  3,  Fig.  1. — Front  half  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  removed,  presenting  the  organs  of 
those  parts  as  they  would  appear  in  front,  during  life.  They  would  not  appear  thus  how- 
ever, when  the  body  is  opened,  as  they  would  flatten  and  change  their  position,  hence  it 
must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  organs  are  not  flat,  but  project  toward  the  observer,  in  the 
centre,  rounding  back  at  the  sides,  as  the  body  does  when  viewed  in  front.  1,  Right 
luns.  2,  Left  lung.  3,  Diaphragm  which  arches  up  under  the  lungs,  its  front  and 
lower  edge  being  attached  to  the  front  and  lower  edge  of  the  ribs  as  seen.  4.  The 
liver,  which  lies  up  under  the  diaphragm  in  such  a  manner  that  if  a  knife  should  be  thrust 
through  where  the  dotted  line  from  3  terminates,  the  liver  would  be  wounded.  5,  Stom- 
ach, with  arteries,  represented  by  the  little  lines  coming  up  under  the  lower  curvature  of 
the  stomach  which  is  represented  as  when  distended  by  food.  6,  Colon,  where  it  passes 
across  below  the  stomach;  a  white  line  shows  one  of  the  three  longitudinal  bands  of 
muscles  which  contract  the  colon  into  pouches,  as  seen.  7,  The  second  stomach,  the 
commencement  of  which  is  seen  in  some  of  the  woodcuts  dispersed  through  the  work. 
8,  From  surface  of  a  small  part  of  the  spleen,  the  chief  part  of  which,  when  the  breath 
is  thrown  out,  is  above  and  back  of  the  part  seen.  9,  The  base  of  the  gall  bladder  which 
lies  forward  10  the  edge  of  the  liver,  the  upper  part  being  found  underneath  the  liver, 
between  it  and  the  colon  and  stomach. 

Fig.  2. — Ideal  view  of  the  left  lung  2,  cut  from  side  to  side  perpendicularly  through 
the  middle.  The  right  lung  is  seen  contracted,  as  when  the  chest  is  opened.  The 
heart  is  between  them.  The  object  is  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  air  inhaled  passes 
through  the  windpipe  and  its  divisions  1,  1,  into  air-cells,  and  that  the  blood  passes  into 
the  lungs  through  the  artery  6,  from  the  right  heart  4,  and  after  the  blood  has  passed  round 
the  air-cells  and  been  acted  upon  by  the  air,  comes  back  to  the  left  heart  5,  through  the 
vessels  7,  of  which  there  are  two,  leaving  the  lungs. 

Fig.  3.— A  greatly  magnified  view  of  the  net- work  of  capillary  bloodvessels  upon  the 
sides  of  the  air-cells.  It  is  not  so  extensive  as  would  in  fact  cover  the  sides  of  a  mus- 
tard seed.  The  blood  passes  in  through  one  set  of  vessels  and  passes  back  through  an- 
other, as  the  colors  exhibit. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  LITHOGRAPHIC  PLATES. 

PL  4,  Fig.  1.— The  red  vessels  represent  the  arteries  of  the  entire  body  branching  to 
the  various  parts  of  the  system,  not  precisely  after  the  manner  of  the  arteries  of  tho 
body,  but  sufficiently  accurate  to  convey  a  general  idea.  The  blue  vessels  represent 
the  veins. 

Fig.  2. — R,  Right  heart.  L,  Left  heart,  from  which  the  red  vessels  lead  the  blood 
into  the  capillaries  C,  C,  of  the  body,  from  which  it  comes  back  to  the  right  heart,  pass- 
ing thence  into  R,  L ;  L,  L,  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs,  thence  back  to  L,  left  heart. 

Fig.  3. — Hearts  and  vessels  separated  from  each  other. 

Fig.  4.— Portal  system  of  vessels.'  1,  Spleen.  2,  Pancreas.  3,  Portion  of  duodenum. 
4,  Gall  bladder  turned  up,  as  better*  seen  in  woodcut.  5,  Tube  or  duct,  from  the  gall 
bladder.  6,  Duct  from  the  liver.  7,  8,  Veins  from  the  second  stomach  ;  9,  those  from 
the  stomach,  which  with  those  from  the  spleen  and  pancreas  unite  to  form  the  portal 
vein  10,  which  divides  and  subdivides  in  trie  iiver. 

PL  5,  Fig.  1.— B,  Candle  giving  off  blue  light.  Y,  Candle  giving  yellow  light.  R, 
Candle  giving  red  light.  In  all  cases  the  light  passes  from  a  candle  in  all  directions,  but 
only  so  many  rays  as  would  enter  the  opening  a,  are  represented.  Such  rays  passing 
through  the  opening  a,  fall  upon  the  very  much  magnified  commencing  points  of  the 
nerve  1.  The  light  from  no  two  candles  is  seen  to  act  on  any  of  the  same  nerves.  2, 
Outer  coats  of  the  eye.  3,  Pigmentum  nigrum.  Neither  this  nor  any  of  the  succeeding 
figures  are  intended  to  convey  any  correct  idea  of  the  eye,  except  as  it  respects  the  ac- 
tion of  light  thrown  upon  the  nerves. 

Fig.  2. — The  light  is  seen  passing  through'a  lens,  by  the  action  of  which,  «he  entire 
yellow  light  passing  through  the  pupil  a,  is  "made  to  act  on  one  point ;  the  same  is  also 
true  of  the  light  from  R  ayi]  B. 

Fig.  3.— R,  Y.  B-  Asjfieretofore.  But  in  this  case  the  lens  has  not  acted  upon  tho 
liuhi  sufficiently  to  cause  it  to  act  on  a  sinsle  nerve,  but  the  red  light  acts  over  the 
nerves  between  4  and 45,  the  yellow  light  acts  on  the  nerves  between  5  and  7,  and  the 
blue  light  on  the  nervefe  between  6  and  8  The  nerves  between  4  and  5.  and  between  7 
and  8,  are  acted  on  by  one  kind  of  light  only,  the  nerves  between  5  and  6  by  both  red 
and  yellow  (orange),  and  the  nerves  between  C  and  7  by  blue  and  yellow  (green).  This 
is  the  case  with" long-sighted  people.  Mo*  old  people  have  indistinct  vision  from 
this  effect  being  produced  by  trie'  insufficient  action  of  the  parts  through  which  light 
passes  to  the  nerve. 

Fig.  4.— R,  Y,  B,  As  before.  In  this  case  -the  light  is  acted  upon  so  powerfully  that 
it  is  bent  to  points  or  foci  before  it  reaches  the  nerve ;  it  passes  the  point  or  focus  there- 
fore, and  when  it  reaches  the  nerves,  the  red  light  acts  over  the  space  between  4  and 
6,  the  yellow  light  upon  the  nerves  between  5  and  7,  the  blue  light  on  the  nerves  be- 
tween 6  and  8,  and  the  same  cause  of  confusion  exists  as  in  case  of  Fisr.  3;  that  it  is 
so.  is  evident  by  bringing  a  thins  so  near  to,  and  removing  it  so  far  from  the  eye,  that  it 
Ixyomes  indistinct ;  the  sensation  is  similar  in  each  case.  So  also  when  the  focus  of  a 
microscope  or  telescope  is  brought  toward  or  removed  from  the  eye.  the  effect  is  simi- 
larly indistinct.  This  is  the  near-sighted  eye. 

Fig.  5. — A,  B,  Are  two  rays  of  different  colored  light  passing  through  the  hole  2,  in 
partition  1,  1,  and  acting  on  the  end  of  one  nerve  D,  producing  the  effect  of  compound 
light. 

Fig.  6  —A,  B,  Two  rays  of  different  colored  light  acting  on  two  nerves,  a  simple 
effect  being  produced  on  each  nerve. 

Fig.  7. — W,  a  ray  of  white  light  passing  through  the  pin-hole  a,  and  bent  upward  as 
it  is  passing  through  the  prism  P.  The  blue  light  is  bent  the  most,  the  yellow  more 
than  the  red  but  not  as  much  as  the  blue,  while  the  red  is  bent,  but  less  than  the  yellow 
and  blue. 

Fig.  8. — The  three  colors  which  compose  white  light,  upon  a  small  card.  If  it  be 
whirled  rapidly  on  a  pin  thrust  through  the  centre,  the  light  from  each  part,  will  act  on 
the  same  nerves,  and  the  card  will  appear  white. 

pjg.  9. — A  mirror  reflecting  all  kinds  of  light. 

Fig.  10. — A  black  object  not  reflecting  any  light. 

Fig.  11,  reflecting  only  red.     Fig.  12,  reflecting  only  yellow.    Fig.  13,  only  blue. 


INTRODUCTION. 


1.  If  a  piece  of  machinery  be  put  in  our  hands,  and  we  be  told 
that  it  is  a  common  house  clock,  we  at  once  know,  that  to  answer  its 
purpose,  it  must  be  placed  where  it  can  be  easily  seen. 

2.  That  is  to  say,  if  we  receive  a  general  description  of 
a  machine  and  its  uses,  we  learn  what  to  do  with  it,  that  it 
may  fulfil  its  duties. 

3.  If  we  be  still  farther  told  the  nature  of  the  pendulum,  how,  by 
swinging  from  side  to  side,  it  assists  in  keeping  time — how  also  the 
weights  act  in  gaining  the  same  result ;  if  the  number  and  nature  of 
the  wheels  be  explained,  how  by  their  action  they  rub  upon  each  other 
and  soon  wear  out  unless  carefully  oiled — how  also,  the  oil  soon  be- 
comes gummy  and  must  be  removed  and  its  place  resupplied  with  new 
— we  shall  learn  that  the  clock  must  be  so  situated  that  nothing  shall 
interfere  with  the  motions  of  the  pendaliim  or  weights — that  the  door 
must  be  kept  closed  to  exclude  the  dust,  &c. 

4.  That  is  to  say,  by  learning  the  particular,  use  of  each 
part  of  the  clock,  and  how  it  ought  to  act,  and  how  and  of 
what  it  is  made,  we  learn  how  to  treat  the  clock,  that  by  the 
perfect  and  harmonious  action  of  all  its  parts  it  may  keep 
the  best  time  and  for  the  longest  period. 

Those  questions,  the  answers  to  which  are  not  found  in  the  text,  are  put  in  Italics. 
IT  1.  What  is  said  of  a  piece  of  machinery?1  V  2.  What  is  the  substance  of  what  is 
eaid  in  the  second  paragraph?  H3.  From  a  farther  description  of  the  clock,  what  ia 
learned?  ff  4.  What  is"  said  in  paragraph  fourth?  ITS.  What  is  the  human  bodyl 


28        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


How  the  laws  of  health  are  discovered. 


5.  So  is  it  in  respect  to  the  Human  Body.    It  is  a  piece  of  Me- 
chanism of  exceeding  beauty,  and  with  most  wonderful  perfection 
intended  to  fulfil  certain  duties. 

6.  To  learn  how  to  take  care  of  this  delicate  machine 
and  cause  it  to  fulfil  its  duties  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner,  we  must  in  the  first  place  learn  of  what  substances 
and  how  the  various  parts  of  the  body  are  made — their  form, 
size,  color,  situations,  and  their  connections  with  each  other. 
— This  is  called  learning  the  Anatomy  of  the  System. 

7.  In  the  next   place   we  must  learn   how  any  part   is 
best  prepared  to  fulfil  its  duty,  what  must  be  supplied  to  it 
in  order  that  it  may  fulfil  its  duty,  what  takes  place  in  it 
and  other  parts  of  the  body  as  it  is  fulfilling  its  duty,  and 
what  the  result  will  be  both  upon  itself  and  every  other  part 
of  the  body.     This  is  called  learning  the  Physiology  of  the 
Human  System. 

8.  By  learning  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  System,  we 
shall  certainly  understand  that  there  is  a  variety  of  things  we  ought 
to  do  if  we  desire  health,  as  well  as  many  we  cannot  do  without  suf- 
fering the  necessary  consequence  of  ill  health.    Thus  we  discover 
a  series  of  what  are  called  laws.     They  were  established  by  our 
Creator,  are  "  perfect  as  He  is  perfect,"  and  of  course  if  we  regulate 
our  conduct  by  them,  we  shall  obtain  and  preserve  Health,  Strength, 
and  Beauty  in  the  highest  possible  degree,  and  for  the  longest  time 
of  which  any  given  person  is  capable.     Hence  these  laws  are  called 
Laws  of  Health  or  Hygiene. 

9.  But  if  a  clock  stop  or  keep  bad  time  it  is  essential  to  know 
whether  a  cord  be  broken,  a  pin  bent,  the  wheels  uncleaned,  &c.,  that 
we  may  know  how  to  correct  the  evil. 


IT  6.  To  take  care  of  it,  what  in  the  first  place  must  we  learn?  I  7.  What  in  the  second 
place  1  What  is  this  called  ?  Give  the  physiology  of  a  clock.  H  8.  By  learning  the 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  system,  what  shall  we  understand?  What  is  a  law  ? 
What  will  be  gained  by  observing  the  laws  of  health  ?  Is  the  Creator  perfect  ?  Are 
His  laws  perfect  ?  If  a  person  suffer  any  harm,  who  then  must  be  in  the  wrong  1 
H  9.  What  is  said  in  paragraph  nine  ?  If  a  pan  or  kettle  leak,  what  is  first  necessary 
in  order  that  it  may  be  mended '!  IT  10.  What  is  desirable  if  the  system  be  diseased  1 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  29 

What  are  poisons.     What  are  medicines. 

10.  So  if  the  Human  System  be  diseased  it  is   desira- 
ble to  know  in  what  condition  the  diseased  part  is,  as  we 
shall   then   better  know  how  to  cure  it.      The  branch  of 
Medical  Science,  which  treats  of  the  state  of  the  system  in 
disease,  is  called  Pathology. 

11.  Whoever  understands  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  much  more 
he  who  also  understands  the  Pathology  of  diseases,  must  be  able,  in 
many  cases,  in  a  rational  way  to  set  himself  about  the  restoration  of 
health ;  in  all  cases  he  must  be  able  to  assist  in  effecting  a  cure. 

12.  Accident    and    experiment,    however,    have    shown, 
that  many  things  which  in  certain  doses  injure  health,  in 
similar  doses  will  cure  disease.     In  respect  to  health  these 
are  called  poisons;  in  respect  to  disease  are  called  medicines. 
That  branch  of  Medical  Science  which  treats  of  the  cure  of 
disease,  whether  by  merely  regulating  a  person's  habits  of 
life,  or  by  the  use  of  medicines,  is  called  TJierapeutics.     The 
means  used  are  called  Materia  Medico,.* 

*  To  learn  how  to  apply  the  Materia  Medica  most  effectually,  it  is  not  enough, 
therefore,  to  be  as  thoroughly  acquainted  with  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Pathology,  as 
the  present  state  of  those  departments  of  science  will  permit — but  also  the  effect,  upon 
health  and  disease,  of  all  things  in  nature  must  be  understood,  as  far  as  possible. 
Much  of  this  is  taught  by  Chemistry,  and  by  Botany  much— but  this  knowledge  is 
mostly  obtained  from  the  experience  of  the  past  and  present  times,  which  may  be 
obtained  partly  by  books,  partly  by  conversation,  and  to  be  most  valuable  must  be 
obtained  in  part  from  personal  observation.  All  this  knowledge  must,  after  a  patient 
investigation  of  any  particular  case,  be  applied  to  it  with  the  exercise  of  a  sound 
judgment,  improved  by  careful  cultivation,  and  by  a  mind  thoroughly  awake  to  the 
importance  of  its  duties,  and  the  responsibility  assumed.  True,  it  seldom  happens 
that  a  disease  requires  such  an  application  of  the  Materia  Medica,  for  a  large  majority 
of  cases  would  be  cured  without  any  thing  being  done.  Alas !  also,  it  is  too  true,  there 
are  but  few  who  can  and  will  do  it,  when  it  is  required.  But  when  it  is  done,  it  some- 
times raises  the  sick  man  from  the  verge  of  the  grave  to  the  vigor  of  health.  Then  it 
is  that  real  skill  triumphs  over  quackery  and  pretence.  Then  it  is  that  the  honest,  in- 
telligent physician  goes  home  thankful  that  he  has  always  refused  the  solicitations  of 
indolence  to  practice  duplicity,  and  feels  rewarded  for  all  the  toil  which  has  made  him 

What  is  Pathology?  H  11.  Who  is  best  able  to  effect  a  cure  of  disease?  if  12.  What 
are  poisons?  What  are  medicines?  Define  Therapeutics.  What  are  the  Materia 
Medica?  Give  the  foot  note.  Which  is  the  happier,  the  good  though  poor  man, 


30  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

The  course  to  be  pursued  in  this  work,  and  the  objects  to  be  gained. 

13.  The  course  to  be  pursued  and  the  objects  to  be  gain- 
ed in  the  following  pages  are  now  evident. 

The  course  is,  (Firstly,  To  give  a  general  description  of 
the  System,  the  uses  of  its  various  parts,  and  upon  what  they 
depend  for  fulfilling  their  duties.  Secondly,  To  give  a  parti- 
cular description  of  each  part,  how  it  accomplishes  its  duty, 
and  what  will  facilitate  and  what  will  preverit  its  action. 
Thirdly,  To  exhibit  at  any  point  in  the  progress  of  the  work 
when  it  will  be  most  easily  understood,  make  the  strongest 
impression  or  be  most  interesting,  the  state  produced  in  any 
part  or  the  whole  System  by  disease  or  by  accident,  the 
causes  of  it.  and  the  general  principles  by  which  a  person 
should  be  governed  in  the  restoration  of  health.* 

The  objects  are,  (Firstly,  To  exhibit  in  "a  convincing 
manner  the  Laivs  of  Health  and  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  by  observing  them.  Secondly,  To  set  before  the 
reader  the  general  course  he  ought  to  pursue  in  order  to 
regain  health  when  by  disease  or  accident  it  is  lost,  and  how 
to  improve  his  constitution  if  it  be  not  naturally  good. 

such  a  benefactor  to  his  brother  man.  He  feels  a  moral  pride  as  he  passes  the  palace 
of  the  brazen-faced,  black-hearted,  ignorant  quack,  and  scorns  with  utter  detestation 
all  the  false  and  glaring  pleasures  that  baseness  pretends  to  enjoy — for  however  he 
seems,  a  man  cannot  be  happy  without  he  is  good. 

The  extent  of  the  subject  not  only,  but  its  very  nature,  would  therefore  exclude  the 
consideration  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  remedies  from  the  limits  of  this  small  work. 

*  Of  course  the  descriptions  of  each  part,  in  a  work  like  this,  must  be  very  brief 
and  only  such  as  are  necessary  for  explaining  the  laws  of  health,  and  convincing  the 
reader  of  their  importance.  The  state  produced  by  disease  must  be  treated  still  more 
briefly,  and  by  some  it  might  be  thought  wise  to  omit  it  altogether ;  but  many  things 
in  connection  with  disease  are  so  interesting,  that  every  reader  will  be  pleased  with 
their  introduction.  They  will  also  enable  him,  in  some  instances,  easily  to  detect  the 
shameless  impositions  of  the  horde  of  quacks  that  infest  community,  and  beguile  the 
sick  with  their  bland  but  baseless  promises  of  health.  Good  nursing  is  so  effectual  an 
assistance  in  the  cure  of  disease,  that  it  seems  all  important  to  set  forth  conspicuously 
the  general  principles  by  which  a  sick  person  is  almost  always  to  be  treated. 

or  the  rich  but  bud  man  i    IT  13.  The  course  and  objects  to  be  pursued  are  what  7 


PART  I. 

GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   SYSTEM. 

DIVISION     I. 

FIKST  CLASS   OF   OKGANS. 


BOOK  I. 

THE    MIND    AND    ORGANS    WITH   WHICH    TO    THINK. 

CHAPTER    I. 

General  Remarks. 

[Man  may  be  distinguished  from  other  animals  (by  the  form  and 
other  peculiarities  of  his  physical  system?)  This,  however,  is  merely 
a  machine ;  without  something  to  use  it.  it  can  do  nothing.  The 
perfect  idiot  is  more  helpless  than  the  lamb — fears  no  danger,  cannot 
ward  it  off,  and  becomes  a  prey  even  to  the  natural  elements.  But 
when  the  action  of  the  body  is  properly  directed,  the  feeblest  man 
is  able  to  entangle  the  strength  of  the  king  of  the  forest,  to  capture 
the  leviathan,  outstrip  the  fleetness  of  the  swiftest  beasts,  and  bend 
the  elements  themselves  to  his  wishes.  As  then,  any  machine  has 
necessarily  a  certain  form,  &c.,;that  it  may  fulfil  certain  duties,  so  the 
body  has  necessarily  its  form  and  peculiarities,uhat  certain  objects 
may  be  accomplished  by  its  use')  A  man  is  not,  therefore,  a  man  on 
account  of  his  form,  but  properly  speaking.] 

14.  Man  is  distinguished  from  animals,  exalted  above 


How  may  man  be  distinguished  from  animals?     Why  has  the  body  its  form? 
1 14.  How  is  man  properly  dfstinguished  from  animals?    The  mind  uses  the  body  for 


32        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Influence  of  the  mind  in  preserving  health. 

them,  and  made  master  of  creation(by  the  possession  of  what 

is  called  MIND) 

f  f 

[Enthroned  in  the  body,  the  mind  uses  it  for  three  different  ob- 
jects :  1st.  fro  produce  voluntary  motion))  2d^To  receive  the  action 
of  tlje  objects  around  us,  and  thereby  obtain  a  knowledge  of  them) 
Sd.^To  think  withj  viz.,  to  remember,  compare,,  reflect,  judge)  &c. 
In  accomplishing  these  different  objects,  the  mind  makes  use  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body.] 

The  Mind. 

15.  The  mind  may  be  defined  as  that  something  which 
thinks,  feels,  and  causes  voluntary  motion,  and  belongs  only 
to  Man. 

[True  the  honey-comb  of  the  bee  (is  constructed  with  all  the  pre- 
cision of  consummate  art.  The  fox  crosses  and  re-crosses  his  track 
that  he  may  mislead  the  hound.  The  horse  neighs  when  he  ap- 
proaches his  old  home,  showing  how  joyfully  he  remembers  the 
place.  Still  more  like  exalted  humanity  the  faithful  dog  grieves  over 
the  decease  of  his  master,  loses  his  appetite,  pines  away  and  dies. 
Yet  all  this  is  not  mental  action.  It  is  but  the  effect  of  instinct.] 

16.  T/w  mind  also  exerts  a  very  powerful  involuntary 
influence  over  every  part  of  the  body,  whereby  its  healthy 
action  is  promoted,  preserved,  or  diminished,  and  disease  pro- 
duced, aggravated,  or  cured. 

Illustration  a.— The  mouth  waters  when  the  mind  thinks  of  any 
kind  of  delicious  food. 

ILlus.  b.—By  anger  the  cheek  is  sometimes  flushed  and  sometimes 


Inference  «.— A  person  who  would  live  long,  preserve  health,  or 
possess  beauty,  should  be  careful  to  cultivate  a  good  disposition  and 
subject  all  the  passions  to  a  proper  control. 

what,  firstly  1  Secondly  7  Thirdly  ?  IT  15.  Define  the  mind.  What  is  said  of  the 
fox  ?  What  of  the  bee  1  What  of  the  dog?  Can  you  men!  ion  any  of  her  animals  that 
exhibit,  strikingly  similar  traits  to  man  ?  What  is  the  -most  singular  thing  ymi,  ever 
sate  any  animal  do?  What  is  the  most  singular  thing  you  errr  heard  of  an  animal 
doing  ?  H  16.  What  is  said  in  if  16  ?  What  is  Illus.  a  ?  What  is  Illus.  b.  ?  Did 
you  ever  see  such  a  case  1  What  is  the  Inf.  to  be  drawn  1  Is  it  a  fortunate  thing 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  33 


Influence  of  the  mind  in  curing  disease. 


[One  reason  doubtless  why  animals  enjoy  better  health  than  men 
is,  that  (mental  anxieties  and  unruly  and  vexatious  passions  do  not 
disturb  thern^)  (^Idiots  enjoy  as  good  health  as  cattle.^ 

Inf.  a.— \f\\e  existence  of  the  mind  is  not  necessary  to  healths. 
Inf.  b. — tVhen  mind  does  exist,   its   influence   in  producing   or 
curing  disease  is  never  to  be  forgotten. 

[A  case  was  recently  seen  where  medicine  (Dover's  Powder)  had 
produced  directly  the  opposite  effects  from  what  it  naturally  would, 
because  the  sick  man  thought  it  was  something  else  (Calomel).  By 
some,  it  is  thought  that  the  mind  always  exerts  a  greater  influence 
than  all  other  things  combined,  either  to  cause  disease  or  cure  it.] 

Inf.  a. — If  a  person  be  sick  every  thing  must  be  done  to  pre- 
possess his  mind  in  favor  of  the  remedies  used — to  quiet  it,  and  re- 
lieve it  of  anxiety.  In  many  cases  visitors  should  be  strictly  ex- 
cluded, and  if  watchers  be  necessary,  those  only  should  be  obtained 
in  whom  the  sick  person  places  perfect  confidence,  with  whom  he 
feels  "  perfectly  at  home,"  and  by  whom  he  will  be  well  nursed. 

Inf.  b.—As  the  disturbing  action  of  the  mind  is  not  exerted 
during  sleep,  it  should  by  all  proper  means  be  obtained  for  the  sick 
person. 

Inf.  c.-t-That  the  use  by  the  physician  of  such  medicines  as 
shall  prevent  the  irritation  caused  by  the  mind,  or  produce  sleep, 
must  in  many  cases  prove  very  beneficial.y 

Inf.  d— The  apparent  success  of  the  quack  and  of  quack  med- 
icines, when  not  attributable  to  the  fact  that  a  large  majority  of 
those  who  are  taken  sick  will  get  well  under  any  treatment,  unless 
positively  killed,  may  easily  be  accounted  for  by  the  effect  of  bold 
promises  and  fabled  exploits  upon  the  mind  of  the  patient.f 

*  Said  a  gentleman  once  when  riding  with  the  writer,  speaking  of  some  very  lean 
swine  by  the  road  side,  quarrelling  with  each  other — "  That  kind  of  hogs  are  very  un- 
profitable to  keep;  they  have  such  bad  dispositions  they  will  never  get  fat." 

t  It  may  be  said  that,  if  a  person  recovered,  the  quack  did  no  harm,  even  if  he  did 
promise  what  he  did  not  believe.  But,  alas  !  for  him  who,  in  afldition  to  the  aid  of  hia 
own  mind,  needs  the  help  of  real  skill,  yet  leans  upon  this  false  reed.  One  of  the  very 
greatest  evils  of  quackery  is,  that  some  who  use  it  get  well,  and  are  held  up  as  ex- 
amples, and  produce  a  false  hope  in  the  minds  of  some,  who  need  help  in  addition  to 
the  strongest  faith  they  can  exercise. 

for  others  that  the  street  tempered  live  long,  while  the  cross  and  peevish' are  out  of  the 
way  earlier  in  life  ?  What  is  one  reason  for  the  health  of  animals  being  as  good  as  it 
is  ?  Do  you  not  suppose  animals  are  sick  sometimes  1  Do  you  suppose  they  arc,  in 
their  native,  state  ?  What  is  the  substance  of  the  foot  note  1  What  is  said  of  the 
health  of  Idiots?  What  is  an  Idiot  1  Did  you  ever  see  one  ?  Ought  we  to  laugh  at 
or  pester  those  who  are  not  perfect  in  their  mental  capacity  ?  What  is  Inf.  a.  1  What 
is  Inf.  b.  ?  What  is  the  case  mentioned  ?  What  do  some  think  ?  What  is  Inf.  a  t 


34        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Every  man  can  afford  to  take  care  of  his  health. 

17.   The  mind  is  also  acted  upon  involuntarily  by  the 
state  of  every  part  of  the  system. 

Illus. — When  a  tooth  is  in  a  bad  state,  it  not  only  causes  an 
ache  but  also  is  apt  to  make  a  person  fretful  past  his  control.  Disease 
of  the  stomach  is  apt  to  make  a  man  low-spirited.  Eating  before  re- 
tiring is  apt  to  produce  bad  dreams.  Breathing  bad  air  dulls  the  action 
of  the  mind.  The  effect  of  wine  is  stimulating,  etc.— On  the  other 
hand(wholesome  food  properly  and  timely  eaten,  breathing  pure  air, 
plenty  of  the  right  kind  of  exercise,  temperate  habits,  frequently  and 
thoroughly  bathing  the  skin,  rubbing  it,  etc«.  tend  to  produce  a  lively 
disposition  and  a  clear  and  vigorous  intellect) 

Inf.  a.^-lt  is  ruinous  policy  to  attempt  to  improve  the  mind 
at  the  expense  of,  or  without  attention  to,  the  wants  of  the  body.  The 
man  is  most  sadly  mistaken  who  thinks  he  has  not  the  time,  or  cannot 
afford,  to  take  care  of  his  health  by  exercise,  &c.,  as  success  in  busi- 
ness, or  the  prosecution  of  studies,  must  to  a  great  degree,  depend  on 
health  of  the  body. 

Inf.  £.-fTo  learn  the  laws  of  health,  the  why  and  wherefore 
of  them,  ank  to  observe  them  with  the  greatest  care,  are  among  the 
first  things  that  should  be  done  by  the  man  who  wishes  to  use  his 
mind  vigorously  in  the  prosecution  of  business  or  sttum 


CHAPTER   H. 
The  Brain,  as  the  organ  with  which  to  Think. 

18.      The  mind  does  not,  in  fulfilling  each  of  its  duties, 
use  equally  all  parts  of  the  body. 

[A  man  whose  arm  has  been  removed,  can  think  as  well  as  ever. 
It  is  therefore  certain  that  he  does  not  need  the  arm  to  think  with. 
In  various  ways  it  can  be  proved  that] 

19.     TJie  mind  uses  the  brain  to  thmk  with. 
[The  brain  is  found  in  the  head  and  constitutes  a  great  part  of  the 
bulk  of  it.    The  outside  of  one  side  of  it  is  represented  by 


What  is  Inf.  b.  7  What  is  Inf.  c.  ?  What  is  Inf  d.  ?  What  is  the  substance  of  the 
foot,  note  ?  IT  17.  How  is  the  mind  acted  on  1  What  is  the  meaning  •/  involuntarily  ? 
What  is  the  Illns.  1  What  tends  to  produce  a  lively  disposition  ?  What  else  do  the 
same  things  tend  to  do  3  What  is  Inf.  a.l  What  is  Inf.  b.'l  Do  you  believe  that 
inference  is  correct  ?  Why  do  you  believe  it  ?  Would  it  make  a  thing  true  to  say  it 
in  this  or  any  other  book  ?f|U  18.  What  is  said  in  U  18 1  How  do  you  prove  that  the 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


35 


The  appearance  of  the  brain. 


FIG.  1. 


Fig.  1. — S  represents  the  scalp,  next  to  which  is  seen  the  skull  or  cranium  (s  s). 
M  m,  A  part  of  the  membrane  lining  the  skull  ami  covering  the  brain.  L  II,  Left 
hemisphere  of  the  brain.  II  II,  A  small  portion  of  the  right  hemisphere  seen  beyond. 
F,  The  deep  fissure  in  which  the  faex  is  situated. 

The  brain  is  soft,  like  jelly,  and  when  taken  out  of  the  skull 
flattens  somewhat,  uy  its  own  weight.  The  substance  of  which  it  is 
composed  is  very  pec^iar,  and  called  nervous  substance.  (The  scholar 
should  obtain  some  of  the  brains  of  some  animal,*  and  examine  the 
substance.)  It  is  con  posed  of  various  parts,  the  size,  form,  color,  con- 
sistence and  relative  position  of  which,  differ  somewhat  in  different 
persons.  But  what  effeci  any  or  all  these  things  have  upon  a  man's 
power  of  thinking,  is -\iot  known,  since  how  the  mind  uses  the  brain, 
or  any  part  of  it,  is  entirely  unknown  in  the  present  state  of  science]. 
, ..£. . • 

mind  uses  the  brain  to  think  with?    Where  is  the  brain  situated?    DescribeFig.lt 

Wh;it  is  the  consistence  of  the  brain?  Did  i/nu  ever  notice  tin-  bruin*  <•<./]  fin  animal '? 
Will  you  obtain  and  I'.rinnin'  t!<f  lirarn  nf  .^(iitif,  unit/if!/,  and  describe  it  to  us  at  the 
next  lesson?  How  is  it  composed ?  What  is  unknown  about  the  brain? 


.on  ar 


BOOK  II. 

ORGANS    USED    IN    FEELING. 

General  Remark. 


feel,  the  mind  makes  use  of  the  Brain — Nerves 
— and  Organs  of  Sense. 

CHAPTER   I. 

The  Brain,  as  an  organ  with  ivhich  to  Feel. 

21.  That  the  brain  is  used  when  the  mind  feels,  is 
certain  from  the  facts — that  when  a  person  is  /stunned,  or  the 
brain  affected  in  various  other  ways,  no  feeling  is  or  can  be 
produced.  When  also  the  brain  has  been  exposed  by  the 
effects  of  an  injury,  pressure  upon  it  would  remove  all  sensa- 
tion. 

[How  the  mind  uses  the  brain  is  not  known.] 


CHAPTER    II. 

The  Nerves,  as  organs  with  which  to  Feel. 

[The  nerves  are  white  pulpy  cords,  extending  from  all  parts  of 
the  body  to  the  brain,  most  of  them  extend  into  the   " back-bone" 

IT  21").  What  is  said  in  TT20?  What  proves  that  the  mind  uses  the  brain  to  think 
with  J  What  are  the  nerves  1  Describe  Fig.  2  ?  How  do  the  nerves  connect  with  the 
brain  1  Do  the  nerves  exist  in  all  pieces  of  meat  1  Hare  you  ever  noticed  them  ? 
How  is  it  certain  that  the  mind  uses  the  nerves  to  feel  with!  What  is  the  Illus.  ? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


37 


FIG.  2. 


[Fur  description,  see  end  of  Chapter. 


38         ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  organs  of  sense  defined. 

through  holes  in  its  sides,  and  form  a  part  of  the  "  spinal  cord." 
Some  of  the  nerves  extend  to  the  brain  through  holes  in  the  skull. 
The  nerves  are  so  small  and  pulpy  that  they  are  rarely  noticed  in  a 
piece  of  meat — but  they  exist  and  can  be  found  by  searching.] 

22.  That  the  mind  uses  the  nerves  in  the  act  of  feel- 
ing, is  certain  from  the  effect  of  injuries.  Thus,  a  young  lady 
falling  on  a  piece  of  glass,  cut  off  the  nerve  at  the  middle  of 
the  elbow  (c,  fig.  2),  and  has  not  felt  any  thing  since  with  the 
little  finger  or  the  adjoining  side  of  the  next  finger — in  which 
part  the  nerve  (c)  commences. 

Fig.  2. — In  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is  seen  (he  lanre  brain.  In  tin;  lower  and  back 
part,  the  email  brain  is  represented  Below  this,  is  scon  the  commencement  of  the 
spinal  cord,  enlarged  between  the  shoulders  and  in  tin;  loins.  From  this,  the  nerves 
are  observed  extending  frorp  cither  side  in  pairs,  the  lame  ones,  in  the  region  of  the 
thighs  called  the  sciatic,  passing  down  (he  lower  extremities,  being  especially  worthy 
of  notice.  In  the  loins  and  vicinity  of  (he  shoulders,  the  nerves  are  observed  sending 
branches  to  each  Other, thus  forming  a  p-^xus.  As  the  nerves  unite  to  form  the  cord, 
it  is  also  observed  that  their  course  is  very  much  inclined  upward  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  back,  and  scarcely  at  all  in  the  nuck. 


CHAPTER    HI. 

Organs  of  Sense. 

23.  The  organs  of  sense  is  the  name  given  to  those 
parts  of  the  body  in  which  the  nerves  of  sensation  commence. 

[They  are  those  parts  through  which,  or  by  means  of  which,  the 
nerves  are  acted  on.  They  differ  from  each  other  on  account  of  the 
difference  in  the  nature  of  the  things  which  are  designed  to  act  on  the 
nerves  through  them.  The  eye  is  adapted  to  be  acted  upon  by  what 
is  called  light,  and  by  means  of  which,  things  are  "  seen."  The  ear  is 
adapted  to  be  acted  upon  by  waves  of  air,  by  means  of  which,  sounds 
are  "  heard."  The  nose  is  adapted  to  be  acted  upon  by  odors,  and  a 
person  can  "  smell."  The  mouth  is  adapted  to  be  acted  upon  by  the 

If  23.  What  are  the  organs  of  sense!    Why  do  the  orsans  of  sense  differ  from  each 
other?    Give  the  illustrations  mentioned  in  respect  to" the  eye,  ear,  &c.    if  24.  How 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  39 


The  organs  of  sense  defined. 

savory  properties  of  bodies,  and  thus  a  person  "tastes."  When  an 
object  is  warmer  or  colder  than  the  skin,  the  nerves  commencing  in  it 
will  be  acted  on,  as  they  also  will  be  by  the  pressure  of  any  thing — and 
the  mind  learns  the  presence,  temperature,  hardness,  &c.,  of  an 
object.] 

24.  There   are   therefore   six   kinds  of  organs  of  sense 
used  by  the  mind  in  feeling. 

[Or  in  other  words  to  gather  all  the  knowledge  we  possess  of  all 
the  things  in  creation  around  us.  For  what  knowledge  of  a  thing 
does  a  man  possess  that  he  does  not  acquire  by  seeing,  hearing,  smell- 
ing, tasting,  touching  or  pressing  it  1  The  manner  in  which  a  per- 
son feels  is  this.  Some  object  acts  upon,  or  through  some  organ  of 
sense,  thereby  an  effect  is  produced  upon  the  nerve  commencing  in  the 
organ  of  sense  and  extending  to  the  brain.  Through  the  nerve  an 
effect  is  produced  on  or  through  the  brain,  whereby  an  effect  is  pro- 
duced on  the  mind.] 

25.  Five   things   are   therefore   necessary  to  produce  a 
feeling  or  sensation  in  the  ordinary  way.      1st.  An   Object. 
2d.  An   Organ   of  Sense.     3d.  A  Nerve.     4th.  The  Brain. 
5th.  The  Mind. 

Inf.— The  kind  of  sensation  will  therefore  depend  upon  the  ac- 
tion of  the  object,  the  state  of  the  organ  of  sense,  the  nerves,  the 
brain,  and  the  mind,  and  that  the  sensation  may  be  natural  and  the 
knowledge  correct,  it  is  necessary  that  all  parts  of  the  body  men- 
tioned be  healthy. 

26.  All  parts  of  the  body  in  "their  various  states  can 
and  do  produce  feelings  or  sensations. 

Hlus. — A  decayed  tooth  causes  a  painful  sensation. 

[These  sensations  are  produced  by  means  of  nerves  commencing 
in  the  part  which  acts  upon  the  nerve.  By  such  sensations  a  person 
is  able  to  form  a  judgment  in  respect  to  the  condition  of  the  internal 
part  of  the  body,  is  warned  of  danger  to  which  they  are  subject,  re- 
warded for  observing,  or  punished  for  trespassing  the  laws  of  health. 

many  kinds  of  organs  of  sense  are  there  1  How  does  a  man  gain  his  knowledge  1 
How  does  a  person  feel?  H  25.  To  feel,  how  many  things  are  necessary1?  What  are 
they!  What  is  the  Inf.  1  T  26.  What  is  said  in  n  261  How  are  these  sensations 
produced  1  What  is  the  use  of  such  sensations  7 


BOOK  III. 

ORGANS    USED    IN    PRODUCING    VOLUNTARY    MOTION. 

General  Remark. 

27.  The  mind  produces  voluntary  motion  by  means  of 
brain,  nerves,  muscles,  and  their  adjuncts,  and  a  jointed 
framework. 

CHAPTER    I. 
TJie  Brain,  as  an  organ  of  Voluntary  Motion. 

28.  That  the  brain  is  used  by  the  mind  in  producing 
voluntary  motion,  is  known  by  the  effects  of  disease,  acci- 
dents and  experiments. 

Hlus—If  a  nerve  be  cut,  as  in  case  of  the  young  lady  before  men- 
tioned, the  person  cannot  move  those  parts  into  which  the  nerve  ex- 
tends. 

[The  reason  of  this  is  evident,  viz.  because  the  means  of  commu- 
nication are  cut  off.] 


CHAPTER    II. 

The  Nerves,  as  organs  of  Voluntary  Motion. 

29.   That  the  nerves  are  used  by  the  mind  in  the  pro- 
it  27.  How  does  the  mind  produce  voluntary  motion?     What  is  the  meaning  of 
voluntary?    What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  J.  1    if  28.  How  is  it  known  that  the  mind 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


41 


There  are  two  kinds  of  nerves. 


duction  of  voluntary  motion  is  certain  by  the   same  proofs 
that  show  the  office  of  the  brain. 

Illus. — A  person  sometimes  sits  in  such  a  position  as  with  the 
weight  of  his  body  to  press  on  the  large  nerve  extending  to  the  leg 
and  foot.  Those  parts  not  only  are  "  numb,"  but  he  cannot  move 
them  readily. 

[The  communication  is  cut  off  by  the  pressure.] 
30.   The  nerves  used  by  the  mind  to  produce  action  are 
not  the  same  nerves  through  which  feeling  is  produced. 

[Outside  the  backbone  both  kinds  of  nerves  appear  alike  ;  indeed, 
lie  by  the  side  of  each  other,  are  inclosed  in  the  same  sheath,  and  can- 
not be  distinguished  from  each  other.  Inside  the  backbone,  however, 
they  divide  from  each  other,  and  form  what  are  called  two  roots. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  3.— Represents  the  double  roots  of  a  spinal  nerve,  with  a  ganglion  D  on  the 
back  or  posterior  root. 

By  cutting  one  root  the  motion  of  the  part  into  which  it  extends  can- 
not voluntarily  be  produced.  By  cutting  the  other  root  no  feeling 
can  be  produced  through  that  part  of  the  body  in  which  that  portion 
of  the  nerve  commences.] 

31.    There   are   therefore   two   kinds   of  nerves,   one   of 

makes  use  of  the  brain  in  producing  voluntary  motion?  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  What 
is  the  reason?  What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  II.  1  What  is  said  in  IT  29?  What  is 
the  Illus.  ?  What  is  said  in  if  30  ?  How  is  this  known  ?  Describe  Fig.  3.  How  many 
kinds  of  nerves  are  there?  Where  may  they  be  said  to  commence,  and  to  where  ex- 


42        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


How  the  mind  uses  the  muscle. 


which  may  be  said  to  commence  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  and  extend  to  the  brain  ;  the  other  of  which  commences 
at  the  brain  and  extends  into  every  part  of  the  body. 

[For  the  action  through  one  kind  of  nerve  takes  place  toward  the 
brain,  through  the  other  kind  from  the  brain.] 


CHAPTEE    in. 

Tlie  Muscles  and  Adjuncts. 

32.  Muscle  is  the  technical  name  of  the  lean  meat. 

[As  we  ordinarily  notice  meat  it  seems  to  be  without  form  or  defi- 
nite arrangement.  It  will  however  upon  examination  be  found,  that 
all  the  lean  meat  of  a  man  or  animal  can  be  separated  into  individual 
pieces,  each  one  of  which  is  complete,  some  large,  some  small,  some 
of  one  shape,  some  of  another  (Sec  PI.  1  and  2),  each  of  which  is 
adapted  to  a  particular  purpose.] 

lllus. — The  "drumstick"  of  a  boiled  fowl  can  easily  be  divided 
into  several  parts,  each  of  which  is  entire,  and  has  its  own  duty  to 
fulfil. 

[At  the  extremities  of  the  muscles  of  the  drumstick,  very  strong, 
tough,  pearl-colored,  glistening  parts  will  be  found.  They  exist  at 
the  ends  of  all  muscles,  and  serve  to  connect  them  to  the  parts  upon 
which  they  act.  By  many  the  tendon  is  considered  as  part  of  the 
muscle,  but  it  is  not  an  active  part.] 

33.  Tlie  mind  uses  the  muscle  by  causing  it  to  shorten 
or  lengthen. 

[This  is  called  contracting  and  relaxing  the  muscle.  The  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscle  is  an  effect  which  must  have  a  cause.  That  cause 

tend?  Why?  What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  III.  ?  TT32.  Did  you  ever  see  a  musdrl 
How  did  it.  "look ?  Are  all  muscles  of  the  same  color  ?  What  is  the  lllus.  ?  Describe 
tendons?  Can  nny  of  the  tendons  be  seen  through  the  skin?  At  what  part  of  the 
body?  u  33.  How  does  the  mind  use  the  muscle  1  Repeat  n  31.  TT  35.  In  producing 
voluntary  motion,  what  then  is  the  duty  of  the  brain  ?  what  is  the  duty  of  the  nerves  ? 


HYGIENE   AND    THERAPEUTICS.  43 

Speem  expression,  gesticulation  and  all  action,  produced  by  the  muscles. 

or  influence  is  called  nervous  influence,  because  it  acts  through  nerves. 
The  usual  expression  is  this  therefore.] 

34.  The  mind  causes  the  muscle  to  contract  or   relax 
by,  in  the  first  place,  causing  the  brain  to  produce  nervous 
influence, — in  the  second  place,  causing  it  to  act  through  the 
proper  nerves  upon  the  muscles,  by  the  contraction  and  re- 
laxation of  which  a  desired  motion  can  be  produced. 

35.  In  tJie  production  of  voluntary  motion  then,  it   is 
the  duty  of  the  brain,  at  the  wish  of  the  mind,  to  produce 
nervous  influence,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  nerves  to  transmit 
the  influence  to  the  muscles,  and  the  duty  of  the  muscles  to 
contract  or  relax  the  instant  they  receive  the  influence  which 
impels  them  to  the  one  or  the  other. 

Inf. — Since  the  speech,  expression  of  the  face,  gesticulation,  and 
every  thing  by  which  the  mind  communicates  its  ideas,  exhibits 
its  emotions,  or  acts  upon  the  world,  depends  upon  the  action  of 
muscles  ;  and  since  these  are  controlled  by  the  brain  and  nerves,  it  is 
essential  to  efficient  action  or  expression  that  the  muscles,  brain, 
and  nerves  be  preserved  in  health. 

[There  are  some  other  parts  (Fasciae,  Bursse,  Cellular-Tissue,  Fat, 
&c.).  which  will  be  described  when  the  muscles  are  treated  upon  in  a 
particular  manner.] 


CHAPTER   IV. 

The  Framework. 

36.  The  Framework  is  required  to  give  form  to  the 
body,  to  support  its  various  parts,  to  protect  some  of  them, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  composed  of  many  pieces, 
so  jointed  together  as  to  allow  all  desired  motion,  and  at 

Which  kind  of  nerves  1    What  is  the  duty  of  the  muscles  /    What  is  the  Inf.  ?    What 
is  the  subject  of  Chap.  IV.  ?   IT  36.  What  is  frame  work  for  ?    Of  what  is  it  composed  ? 


44 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Side  view  of  the  skeleton. 


the  same  time  so  bound  together  that  all  parts  shall  possess 
great  strength.  • 

[It  is  perfectly  adapted  to  its  duties  in  all  these  respects. — It  is 
composed  of  bones  and  certain  elastic  gristly  substances  called 
Cartilages,  which  are  bound  together  by  ligaments,  in  the  strongest 
manner,  forming  what  is  called  a  natural  Skeleton. 

Fig.  4. 


The  manner  in  which  the  muscles  produce  motion  is  shown  by  Fig.  5. 
Here  is  represented  a  muscle  B,  with  tendons  T  I.  By  one  extremity 
the  tendon  connects  the  muscle  with  the  shoulder.  The  tendon  at  the 
other  extremity  passing  across  the  elbow  joint,  connects  the  muscle 

Of  what  is  it  composed?     Describe  Fig.  4.     Describe  Fig.  5.      V  37.  How 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


45 


The  organs  directly  used  by  the  mind. 


Fig.  5. 


w 


with  the  bones  of  the  lower  arm.  When  the  muscle  B  contracts, 
the  lower  arm  must  be  raised ;  at  the  same  time,  however,  the  muscle 
S  E  must  be  relaxed  or  lengthened,  as  it  is  by  its  lower  tendon 
attached  to  the  lower  arm  bone,  where  a  hook-like  projection  of  it 
forms  the  point  of  the  elbow.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  muscle 
S  E  contracts,  the  muscle  B  must  relax.] 

[In  some  places  the  muscles  will  be  found  attached  to  other  parts 
than  bones,  but  the  principle  upon  which  they  act  is  similar.] 

Concluding  Remarks. 

37.  The  mind,  it  seems,  makes  use  of  three  classes  of 
organs.      1st.  The  Brain.     2d.  The  Brain,  Nerves  of  Sensa- 
tion, and  Organs  of  Sense.    3d.  The  Brain,  Nerves  of  Motion. 
Muscles,  and  the  Framework,  called  the  Skeleton. 

38.  All  three  classes  may,  with  propriety,  be  considered 
as  forming  One  class,  which  may,  from  its  .importance,  be 
called  the  First  Class  of  Organs* 

*  It  is  frequently  termed  the  Organs  of  Animal  Life — but  the  expression  does  not 
seem  to  sufficiently  signify  its  importance. 


many  classes  of  organs  does  the  mind  use  1    What  are  they  1    IF  38,  What  is  said  of  all 
three  classes  ?    What  is  the  substance  of  foot  note  1 


DIVISION    II. 

THE   SECOISTD    CLASS    OF   OKGANS. 


General  Remarks. 

[Upon  examination,  we  find  the  Human  Body  composed  of  many 
other  organs  than  those  yet  mentioned.  A  general  idea  of  the  use  of 
them  can  be  gained  by  noticing  what  is  necessary  in  a  common 
factory.  For,  though  the  Human  System  is  very  much  unlike  and 
altogether  beyond  any  machine,  the  work  of  man's  hands,  yet  in 
certain  respects  the  resemblance  is  such  that  the  comparison  may 
prove  instructive  in  respect  to  the  needs  of  the  body.] 

[The  various  parts  of  a  factory  are  constantly  wearing  out  and 
must  very  frequently  be  repaired.  To  accomplish  this  there  must 
be  shops  in  which  the  repairing  substance  may  be  prepared.  It 
must  then  be  taken  to  where  it  is  required.  Sometimes  it  can  be 
wholly  prepared  in  the  shop,  sometimes  it  must  still  farther  be  pre- 
pared when  it  arrives  at  its  appropriate  place.  It  is  evident  that  the 
shop  must  be  supplied  with  proper  material  to  be  prepared ;  for  a 
piece  of  iron  or  steel  or  leather  which  was  needed  in  the  factory 
could  not  be  prepared  from  a  plank.  It  is  also  necessary,  that  the 
parts,  which  by  use  have  become  useless,  should  be  removed  from  the 
factory,  as  they  will  only  be  in  the  way.  It  would  also  be  proper  to 
have  them  carried  somewhere  and  sorted,  and  if  necessary,  pulled  in 
pieces,  that  whatever  is  of  any  use  may  be  separated  from  that  which 
is  entirely  worthless,  which  must  be  cast  away  altogether.] 


What  is  found  upon  examination  1  Why  may  we  compare  the  body  to  a  machine  ? 
Why  are  shops  needed  by  a  factory?  Do  most  factories  hare  a  machine  shop  con- 
nected with  them!  Where  then  must  the  substance  be  taken?  What  is  it  evident 
must  be  furnished  to  the  shop?  Why?  What  is  also  necessary ?  Where  should  the 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  47 

What  is  necessary  in  a  factory. 

Two  other  things  must  be  taken  notice  of,  viz.,  On  the  one  hand, 
the  factory  must  be  kept  Avarm ;  on  the  other,  it  must  at  times  be 
kept  cool.  To  keep  the  factory  warm  heat  must  be,  in  the  first  place, 
produced ;  in  the  second  place,  distributed ;  and  in  the  third  place, 
it  must  be  preserved.  It  is  produced  by  means  of  fuel  to  burn  on 
the  one  hand,  and  air  on  the  other  to  cause  it  to  burn.  It  may  be 
produced  in  stoves  in  each  room,  and  distributed  by  what  is  called 
radiation  (a  flying  off  in  all  directions),  from  the  stoves.  It  may  be 
produced  in  one  furnace,  and  distributed  by  air,  or  water,  or  steam 
passing  through  tubes  which  extend  through  the  furnace,  and  thence 
into  all  the  rooms.  When  water  is  used,  the  same  water,  which  at 
one  time  was  in  the  tubes  in  the  furnace  and  there  became  heated, 
may,  after  it  has  passed  through  the  rooms,  again  come  back  to  the 
furnace,  and  again  becoming  heated,  again  pass  through  the  rooms, 
thus  making  a  rapid  circuit  through  the  furnace  and  rooms.  Another 
source  of  heat  is  found  in  the  action,  wearing  out,  and  repairing  that 
is  constantly  going  on  in  the  factory.  Heat  is  preserved  at  those 
seasons  of  the  year  when  necessary,  sometimes  by  outward  protec- 
tions, such  as  movable  porches,  double  doors,  "banking  up,"  &c.; 
sometimes  by  internal  protections,  such  as  papering,  listing,  &c.,  &c. 
But  as  the  weather  becomes  warmer,  the  factory  sometimes  becomes 
too  warm,  especially  as  heat  must  constantly  be  produced  by  the 
action,  wearing,  and  repairing  going  on  within.  There  must  then  be 
some  arrangement  made  for  cooling  the  factory  as  far  as  possible.  In 
the  first  place,  the  protections  of  winter  will  be  removed ;  then  win- 
dows are  opened,  and  water  sprinkled  on  the  floors,  that  by  evapora- 
tion it  may  cool  the  air  in  the  rooms.  The  production  of  heat  is  also, 
as  far  as  possible  prevented.] 

[Because,  then,  the  various  parts  of  the  factory  .are  wearing  out, 
and  on  account  of  its  needs  in  respect  to  temperature,  four  things  are 
necessary:  1st.  The  used  and  useless  material  must  be  carried  out  of 
or  excreted  from  the  factory.  2d.  Substance  of  a  proper  character 
(it  may  be  called  nutriment)  must  be  prepared  and  used  for  repairing. 
3d.  Heat  must  be  produced,  distributed,  and  preserved.  4th.  Cooling 

worn-out  parts  be  carried?  Of  what  two  other  things  must  notice  be  taken?  What 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  factory  warm?  How  is  heat  produced?  What  may  it  be  pro- 
duced in?  How  distributed?  What  does  radiate  mean?  In  what  other  way  may  it 
be  produced  and  distributed?  When  water  is  used,  how  may  it  be  acted  on  ?  Where 
is  another  source  of  heat  ?  How  is  heat  preserved  ?  How  is  the  factory  cooled  1 


48  ANA  TOM  V.    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Action  of  the  body  attended  by  change  of  its  substance. 

must  be  caused  at  times,  and  the  production  of  heat,  as  far  as  possible, 
prevented.  These  things  must  be  done  by  means  of  nutriment,  fueL 
air,  water,  and  such  apparatus  and  assistance  as  the  case  requires.] 

[In  a  like  manner  as  in  a  machine,  though  not  for  the  same  reason 
nor  in  the  same  way,] 

39.  Using  any  part  of  the  body  is  always  attended  by  a 
change  in  a  greater  or  smaller  portion  of  the  part  used. 

[Change  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  manifestation  of  life. 
Wherever  life  is  exhibited,  change  of  substance  must  take  place ;  and 
when  the  change  ceases,  life  ceases.  It  is  not  such  a  change  as  is 
produced  by  the  use  of  any  machine ;  that  is,  more  properly,  a  wear- 
ing out,  and  a  wearing  out  which  from  the  outset  begins  to  reduce 
the  value  of  the  machine,  and  shorten  its  service.  The  change  taking 
place  in  the  system  is  a  genuine  change,  the  old  parts  are  taken  away 
and  new  ones  supply  their  place/  The  change  is  also  the  cause  of 
the  action  that  takes  place.  It  is  also  of  such  a  nature,  that  if  it 
take  place  within  given  bounds,  the  part  in  which  it  takes  place  is 
the  better  for  it,  and  more  perfect  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 
It  is  difficult  to  explain  it  to  a  person  not  familiar  with  chemistry  and 
its  teachings,  yet  it  is  an  important  point  to  have  understood.  It 
must  suffice,  however,  to  say,  that  the  desired  action  of  any  part  takes 
place  at  the  expense  of  a  corresponding  amount  of  substance  which  is 
no  longer  what  it  was,  but  becomes  useless.  That  such  change  takes 
place,  and  is  great  in  amount,  is  shown  by  the  following  illustrations : 

Illus.  a. — If  a  deer  be  raced  to  death,  his  meat  is  not  fit  to  be 
eaten.  The  substance  of  the  muscles  he  has  used  has  undergone 
such  a  change,  that  it  does  not  look,  feel,  nor  taste  like  ordinary  veni- 
son. It  will  also  putrefy  very  quickly.  This  last  is  also  observed  of 
horses,  when  driven  to  death. 

Illus.  b.—  Butchers  sometimes  set  dogs  on  cattle  and  run  them 
round  a  field  for  a  while  before  killing  them,  to  make  the  meat  more 
tender. 

[For  if  a  small  part  only  have  undergone  the  change,  the  meat 
will  be  more  tender ;  but  it  will  not  keep  so  long,  nor  will  it  be  so  valu- 
able, if  eaten  at  once,  as  unexercised  meat.] 


What  four  things  are  necessary  in  regard  to  the  factory  7  II  39.  What  is  the  effect  of 
using  any  part  of  the  body?  What  is  said  of  change  in  the  substance  of  the  body? 
What  is  the  effect  of  proper  change  upon  the  part  in  which  it  takes  place  ?  What  is 
Illus.  a.  ?  What  is  Illus.  b.  ?  Why  is  this  1  What  is  Illus.  c.  7  V  40.  What  do  these 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  49 

Excretion,  nutrition,  also  heating  and  cooling  the  system,  necessary. 

Illus.  c. — A  person  eais  much  more  when  he  exercises  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  than  when  he  rests. 

40.  The  changes  produced  by  using  the  system  render  two 
grand  classes  of  duties  necessary.     1st.  a.  The  substances 
which  have  undergone  the  change  must  be  removed,    b.  They 
must  be  carried  to  certain  parts  of  the  body  where  they  may 
be,  so  to  speak,  sorted,     c.  The  wholly  useless  portions  of 
them  must  be  excreted  or  thrown  out  of  the  body,  while  if 
there  be  any  portion  that  can  be  used  in  the  body  it  must  be 
retained.     2d.  a.  A  corresponding  amount  of  substance  must 
be  taken  into  the  body.     b.  It  must  be  in  part,  or  wholly, 
prepared  for  use.     c.  It  must  be  carried  to  where  it  is  re- 
quired. 

[If  a  healthy  person  with  cold  hands  or  feet  retire  at  night  in  a 
cold  chamber,  he  will  wake  in  the  morning  and  find  himself  warm 
and  comfortable.  If  he  go  into  a  room  where  the  heat  is  excessive, 
even  sufficient  to  boil  water,  the  heat  of  his  body  will  not  for  a  short 
time  be  appreciably  increased.  The  writer  has  been  into  and  re- 
mained several  minutes  in  a  room  where  the  degree  of  heat  was  300. 
This  shows  that  the  system  ought,  can,  and  does  warm  itself,  and 
also  keep  itself  cool.] 

41.  The  wants  of  the  system  in  respect  to  temperature 
render  two  grand  classes  of  duties  necessary.     1st.  a.  That 
heat  should  be  produced  in  the  body.     b.  That  it  should  be 
distributed,     c,  That  it  should  be  preserved.     2d.  a.  That 
the  system  should  be  cooled,     b.  That  at  times  the  produc- 
tion of  heat  be  as  far  as  possible  prevented. 

42  To  fulfil  these  four  grand  duties  of,  1st.  Excreting 
or  removing  substance  from  the  body,  2d.  Nourishing  or 
repairing,  3d.  Heating,  4th.  Cooling  itself,  the  system 

changes  render  necessary  1  What  is  the  first 7  What  is  the  second?  Can  a  healthy 
person  become  warm  in  a  cold  room  1  Can  a  healthy  person  keep  himself  cool  in  a 
hot  room  1  ff  41.  What  do  the  wants  of  the  system,  in  respect  to  temperature,  render 
necessary?  What  is  the  first  1  What  is  the  second  1  H  42.  What  must  the  body  re- 
ceive 1  What,  also,  must  it  possess  ? 


50        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  system  needs  food  and  water. 

will  need  to  receive  food  (comprehending  fuel  and  nutri- 
ment), air,  and  water  ;  and  must  possess  a  variety  of  organs 
of  peculiar  structure  and  powers. 

[What  the  general  structure  of  these  organs  must  be,  and  how 
their  duties  are  accomplished  by  the  use  of  food,  air,  and  Avater,  will 
be  understood  by  re-examining  each  of  the  four  grand  duties  of  the 
system.] 


BOOK  I. 

FIRST   GRAND    DUTY EXCRETION. 

General  Remark. 

43.  That  Excretion  may  take  place,  three  things  are 
necessary.  1st.  That  the  useless  substance  should  be  re- 
moved from  every  part  where  it  exists.  2d.  That  it  should 
be  carried  to  certain  organs.  3d.  That  organs  exist  for  the 
purpose  of  separating  the  useless  from  the  good,  and  dis- 
missing the  former  from  the  system  altogether. 

[The  precise  character  or  nature  of  the  useless  substance  is  not 
certainly  known.  We  cannot  judge,  therefore,  how  it  ought  to  be  re- 
moved only  by  seeing  how  it  is  removed,  from  where  it  is  produced. 
Nor  do  we  know  enough  about  it  to  judge  in  advance  how  it  ought 
to  be  cast  out  of  the  system,  or  what  ought  to  be  the  structure  of 
those  organs  by  which  it  is  removed.  One  only  thing  do  we  know  of 
them— they  must  be  placed  either  at  the  surface  of  the  body  or  have 
some  outlet  leading  to  the  surface,  that  they  may  discharge  the  use- 
less substance  from  the  system.  The  brain,  therefore,  the  nerves,  the 
muscles,  the  bones,  viz.,  all  those  organs  belonging  to  the  first  class 
cannot  be  engaged  in  excretion.] 

[It  will  not  be  inconsistent  to  suppose  that  as  the  different  parts  of 
the  body  are  so  diiferent  in  structure,  an  organ  so  constructed  as  to 
remove  one  portion  of  the  useless  substance,  might  not  be  able  to 
eliminate  it  all.  But  about  all  these  things  we  can  only  determine  by 
examining  the  facts.] 

What  is  the  subject  of  book  1. 1  IT  43.  That  excretion  may  take  place,  what  is  neces- 
sary in  the  first  place  ?  What  in  the  second  1  What  in  the  third  ?  What  is  here  said 
of  the  useless  substance  1  What  one  thing  do  we  know  of  the  organs  that  remove  use- 
less substance  ?  What  organs  cannot  be  engaged  in  excretion  1  What  would  it  not  ba 


52        ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Water  of  use  in  the  veins. 

CHAPTER    I. 

The  Veins  of  the  System. 

44.  The    Veins   are   fleshy,  flexible   tubes,  commencing 
in  every  part  of  the  body  by  very  small  roots,  but  gradually 
uniting,  as  seen  by  the  blue  parts  of  Fig.  1,  PI.  4,  and,  with 
one  exception,  centering  in  the  chest.     Their  use  is  to  re- 
move from  all  parts  of  the  body  the  substance  not  needed 
in  those  parts,  and  to  allow  the  blood  to  flow  to  the  centre  of 
the  body. 

[On  account  of  these  veins  leading  from  all  parts  of  the  system, 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  systemic  veins.  Whatever  is 
found  in  the  veins  is  called  blood,  hence  the  veins  are  also  called 
bloodvessels.] 

45.  Water  must  be  useful  to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
solid  substance  through  the  veins,  as  it  could  be  dissolved  or 
suspended,  and  also  floated  along  in  the  water. 

[In  many  of  the  veins  a  curious  arrangement  exists  to  prevent  the 
contents  of  the  veins  from  being  pressed  back,  as  they  sometimes 
would  be  likely  to  be,  either  by  their  own  weight  or  the  pressure  to 
which  various  parts  of  the  body  are  subject.  Within  some  of  the 
veins  valves  are  placed ;  these  are  attached  by  one  side  to  the  vein, 
and  float,  so  to  speak,  in  the  blood.] 

[The  slightest  pressure  from  beneath  raises  the  valves,  but  any 
force  from  above  shuts  them  down  across  the  vein,  which  they 
thus  close ;  the  vein  above  them,  as  would  be  natural,  being  a  little 
enlarged.  Several  eminences  thus  produced  will  be  seen  by  pressing 
the  finger  down  upon  the  veins  of  the  back  of  the  hand.] 


inconsistent  to  suppose  ?  What  are  the  subjects  of  Chap.  1.1  IT  44.  What  are  the 
veins  1  What  is  their  use  1  What  particular  name  does  the  veins  here  mentioned 
have?  Why)  Whatisbhrod?  What  are  the  veins  also  called"?  ir  45.  Why  must 
water  be  useful  1  What  curious  arrangement  is  found  in  most  of  the  veins  1  Describe 
Fig.  7.  What  can  produce  little  eminences  on  the  back  of  the  hand  1  What  is  the 


HYGIENE   AND    THERAPEUTICS.  53 


The  duty  of  the  right  heart. 
Fig.  6. 


Fig.  6.— Vein  cut  open  to  show  valves,  a  a,  above  which  the  pouching  parts,  b  b, 
are  seen. 


CHAPTER    H. 

Heart — Arteries — Pulmonary  Veins. 

[The  materials  being  thus  brought  together  by  the  veins,  must  be 
carried  to  proper  organs  for  a  selection  and  removal  to  be  made.  It 
is  found  that  the  first  thing  necessary  is  to  expose  the  blood  to  the 
air/  An  arrangement  for  that  purpose  exists. 

SEC.  A. — The  Right  Heart. 

46.  Tlie  Right  Heart  is  the  name  given  to  a  hollow 
muscle  or  muscular  bag  with  very  thick  sides,  with  two 
openings,  and  situated  back  of  the  breastbone,  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  what  is  called  the  chest.  Its  duty  is  to  contract 
and  dilate,  and  thus  receive  blood  from  the  veins  on  the  one 
hand,  and  force  it  out  on  the  other  into  a  tube,  which,  with 
its  branches,  leads  the  blood  to  the  air. 

[It  accomplishes  these  objects  upon  the  same  principle  as,  if  a 
person  should  grasp  a  filled  bladder  suddenly  with  his  hand,  its  con- 
tents would  be  thrown  out.  To  render  the  action  of  the  muscular 

reason  1    What  are  the  subjects  of  Chap.  II.  1    Where  must  the  materials  gathered  by 
the  veins  be  carried  7    IF  46.  What  is  the  right  heart  ?    Describe  Fig.  8.    What  is  the 


54         ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Section  of  the  organ  of  the  chest. 

part  of  the  heart  successful,  valves  are  placed  at  the  opening  leading 
from  the  veins  into  the  heart,  and  so  arranged  as  to  allow  the  blood 
to  pass  into,  but  not  out  of,  the  heart.  At  the  other  opening  valves 
are  so  arranged  as  to  allow  blood  to  pass  out  of,  but  not  back  into 
the  heart.] 

Fig.  7. 


Fig.  7. — Section  of  the  chest  and  upper  part  of  the  abdomen.  2,  Left  lung,  per- 
fectly filling  the  left  side — see  also  Lith.  PI.  3,  Fig.  1.  3,  Right  lung,  somewhat  broader 
and  shorter  than  the  left.  4,  The  left  or  back  heart,  cut  across  but  not  exhibiting  its 
internal  divisions.  5,  Right  or  front  heart.  7,  Arch  of  the  aorta,  continued  back  of 
the  heart,  as  seen  by  the  dotted  lines.  8,  The  vena  cava  decendens.  8',  The  vena 
cava  ascendens,  viz.,  the  veins  through  which  the  blood  returns  to  the  heart.  9,  The 


opening  of  the  oesophagus  into  the  stomach— the  dotted  lines  exhibiting  the  direction 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  oesophagus,  behind  the  thin  point  of  the  liver.  10,  The  pylorus. 
Both  this  and  the  opening  at  9,  being  closed  when  the  stomach  is  distended  with  food, 


as  here  represented.  14,  The  larger  curvature  of  the  stomach,  as  from  9  to  10,  is 
lesser  curvature.  11,  The  commencement  of  the  second  stomach,  called  the  duode- 
num. 12,  The  larger  lobe  of  the  liver— indistinctly  separated  from  the  lesser  lobe  13. 
15,  A  section  of  the  gall-bladder.  The  diaphragm  is  seen  arching  above  the  organs 
of  the  abdomen,  as  when  the  breath  is  thrown  out.  When  the  sides  of  the  diaphragm 
are  contracted  and  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  relaxed,  the  parts  below  are  pressed  down 
while  the  air  pressed  in  through  the  windpipe  presses  down  the  bottom  of  the  lungs, 
causing  it  to  follow  the  depression  of  the  diaphragm,  the  movement  of  which  is  very 
slight  beneath  the  heart,  1.  Gives  the  form  of  what  is  called  the  thyroid  gland,  situated 
up»n  the  windpipe  6,  a  little  below  the  "  Adam's  apple."  [It  is  of  a  red-purple  color, 
softer  than  liver,  somewhat  saddle-shaped.  It  receives  bloodvessels  and  nerves,  but 
has  no  tube  leading  from  it.  Its  use  is  not  known ;  and  though  in  external  appearance 
Bomewhat  representing  some  of  the  glands,  it  is  in  all  probability  wrongly  named.  It 
Bometimes  enlarges,  producing  what  is  called  goitre,  bronchocele.  swelled  neck.  One 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  55 

Semilunar  valves — Arteries  of  the  lungs. 

of  the  most  important  causes  of  this,  is  the  use  of  hard  water — as  in  passing  through 
the  entire  United  States,  it  has  been  noticed  that  very  few  cases  of  goitre  are  found  in 
sections  where  the  water  is  soft;  but  that  they  are  very  common  in  central  New- York, 
and  other  sections  where  the  water  is  hard.  After  attention  had  been  arrested  by  the 
evident  fact,  it  was  also  found  to  be  the  case  in  Europe  ;  in  some  sections  of  which, 
the  evil  is  much  more  extensive  than  here.  Other  causes  may,  and  doubtless  do,  assist 
to  produce  the  result.] 

Fig.  8. 


Fig.  8. — The  dart  shows  the  direction  of  the  current.  By  the  sides  of  the  dart  re- 
presentations of  the  open  semi-lunar  valves  are  seen.  When  closed,  the  edges  overlap 
each  other,  while  between  the  edge  and  the  side  of  the  vessel  the  valve  "  bags  "  down. 

SEC.  B.— Pulmonary  (Lung)  Arteries. 

47.  Pulmonary  Artery  is  the  name  given  to  a  tube  dif- 
fering somewhat  in  its  structure  from  a  vein,  and  commenc- 
ing at  the  right  heart,  passing  up  a  very  short  distance  and 
then  dividing  into  two  grand  branches,  one  of  which  lea<Js  into 
one  side,  the  other  into  the  other.  (See  blue,  parts  of  Fig. 
2,  PI.  3,  and  Fig.  2,  PI.  4.)  The  use  of  the  arteries  of  the 
lungs,  is,  to  lead  the  blood  to  the  air  which  we  breathe. 

[Those  parts  into  which  the  blood  is  led  by  the  lung  arteries  are 
called  the  luugs.  In  them  a  portion  of  substance  is  removed  from  the 
blood  and  carried  out  of  the  body  by  the  air  we  breathe  out.  After 

duty  of  the  heart?  Describe  the  valves  of  the  heart.  Describe  Fig.  9.  IT  47.  What  is 
the  pulmonary  artery?  Will  you  draw  a  picture  of  it,  as  near  as  you  can,  on  the 
black  board  1  What  is  the  use  of  these  vessels?  What  are  the  lungs  ?  What  is  the 
ordinary  name  of  lungs  ?  What  takes  place  in  them  ?  After  this,  what  state  existst? 


56         ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  beautiful  arrangement  of  the  capillaries. 

this,  there  are  yet  left  many  substances  which  ought  to  be  removed 
and  for  which  other  organs  are  necessary,  hence  the  blood  must  be 
taken  to  them.] 

SEC.  C. — Pulmonary  (Lung)  Veins. 

48.  The  Pulmonary  Veins  are  like  the  systemic  veins, 
except  that  they  receive  blood  from  the  pulmonary  arteries 
only,  and  lead  it  back  to  the  left  heart  instead  of  the  right. 

[It  will  be  proper  here  to  notice  a  very  important  class  of  blood- 
vessels, called  capillary  or  hairlike.  They  exist  in  the  form  of  a  net- 
work between  all  arteries  and  veins  so  farjas  is  known.  Into  them 
the  arteries  open  on  one  hand,  and  from  them  the  veins  receive  blood 
on  the  other.  A  magnified  view  of  those  existing  in  a  very  small 
part  of  the  lung  is  seen  at  Fig.  3,  PI.  3. 

SEC.  D. — Left  Heart. 

49.  The  I^eft  Heart  is  the  name  of  a  hollow  muscle 
Very  much  like  the  right  heart,  situated  by  the  side  of  it 
and  growing  closely  to  it.     Its  use  is  to  receive  blood  from 
the  pulmonary  veins  and  pour  it  out  through  a  tube  and  its 
divisions  into  all  parts  of  the  body. 

[What  is  usually  called  the  he'art  and  appears  externally  to  be  but 
one,  is,  in  fact,  composed  of  two,  which  are  immediately  revealed 
when  the  hearts  are  cut  open.  They  both  act  at  one  time  and  in  the 
same  way,  and  thus  help  one  another. 

SEC.  E. — Systemic  Arteries. 

50.  Systemic  Arteries  are  the  names  given  to  a  tube  and 

U  48.  Describe  the  pulmonary  veins.  Describe  the  capillaries,  ff  49.  What  is  the  left 
heart  1  What  is  its  use  1  Are  there  two  hearts  or  but  one  1  Why  do  people  usually 
believe  there  is  but  one  1  H  50.  Describe  the  systemic  arteries.  Why  are  they  so 
called?  How  is  a  complete  circuit  of  blood  formed'?  What  is  meant  by  circuit? 
What  is  the  course  of  the  substance  which  is  not  at  once  thrown  out  of  the  system  1 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


57 


Constant  circuit  of  blood  in  the  body. 


its  divisions  through  which  the  blood  flows  out  to  all  parts 
of  the  body  from  the  left  heart. 

Fig.  9. 


Fig.  9.— The  two  hearts  in  contact.  R,  A,  Right  auricle.  R,  V.  Right  ventricle. 
L,  A,  Left  auricle.  L,  V,  Left  ventricle.  A,  A, "Aorta.  V,  V,  Veins.  P.  A— P,  A, 
Pulmonary  arteries. 

[In  the  arrangements  made  to  accomplish  excretion,  other  ends 
also  were  to  be  gained,  whence  we  shall  find  a  somewhat  different 
states  of  things,  doubtless,  from  what  would  be  if  excretion  alone 
were  the  object  of  the  arrangements.  Thus,  we  now  see  the  blood 
to  be  poured  out  into  all  parts  of  the  body  equally,  and  all  of  it  does 
not  at  once  find  its  way  to  any  other  except  the  lungs.  But  the  sys- 
temic arteries  terminate  in  the  capillary  vessels',  from  which  the 
systemic  veins  arise.  Here,  therefore,  a  complete  circuit  is  estab- 
lished, and  if  the  substance  which  is  to  be  excreted  does  not  find  its 
way  to  an  organ  adapted  to  remove  it,  it  will  come  back  through  the 
systemic  veins  into  the  right  heart,  thence  it  will  be  thrown  out  into 
the  pulmonary  arteries,  and  come  round  through  the  pulmonary  veins 
into  the  left  heart,  and  be  again  sent  out  through  the  systemic  artery 
and  some  of  its  branches.  If  it  have  no  better  luck  than  before,  it 

If  51.  On  what  account  must  water  be  useful  1    What  are  the  subjects  of  Chap.  III.  ? 


58 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Ideal  view  of  the  circulation. 


will  again  be  moved  through  the  circuit  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  and 
so  on  till  after  ten.  twenty,  or  a  thousand  circuits,  it  must  at  last 
pass  through  an  organ  where  it  will  be  removed  from  the  blood,  and 
expelled  from  the  body.] 

Fig.  10. 


Fig.  10.— Ideal  representation  to  show  the  facts  of  the  circulation  of  the  heart. 
Through  V,  V,  the  blood  passes  into  R,  A,  from  which  it  passes  into  R,  V,  and  goes 
out  through  P,  a.  Coming  back  through  P,  V,  into  L,  A,  it  passes  on  into  L,  V,  from 
which  it  goes  out  through  A. 

51.    Water  must  be  useful  to  facilitate   the  passage  of 
substance  through  every  part  of  its  circuit. 


CHAPTER   in. 

Excreting  Organs. 

52.    Tfore  are  jive  classes  of  excreting  organs. 
[The  peculiar  structure  and  position  of  each  one,  is  owing  proba- 

1i  52.  Repeat  fl  52.    What  shows  the  comparative  importance  of  the  lungs  7    What  i- 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  59 


The  importance  of  the  lungs  as  excreting  organs. 

bly,  to  the  other  duties  fulfilled,  as  much  as  to  its  necessity  in  regard 
to  excretion.] 


SEC.  A. — The  Lungs  as  excreting  organs. 

[The  comparative  importance  of  these  organs  is  evident  from  the 
fact  already  observed,  that  all  the  blood  which  comes  back  through 
the  veins,  to  the  right  heart,  is  immediately  sent  to  these  organs. 
Another  fact,  speaks  quite  as  strongly,  viz. :  if  they  are  prevented  from 
doing  their  duty,  for  five  minutes,  a  man  will  die — without  some  ex- 
traordinary means  are  resorted  to.] 

Inf. — This  fact  exhibits  also  the  importance  of  excretion.* 

53.  TJie  Lungs  are  two  in  number,  one  situated  in  each 
side  of  the  chest,  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  heart,  and  filling 
all  those  parts  of  the  chest  not  occupied  by  the  heart,  blood- 
vessels, and  meat  pipe.  (See  Fig.  7  ;  also,  1,  2,  Fig.  1? 
Plate  3.)  As  it  respects  excretion,  the  object  of  the  lungs 
is,  to  receive  the  air  we  breathe,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  blood  on  the  other,  to  cause  these  to  act  on  each  other, 
and  then  to  expel  the  air,  and  with  it  a  certain  amount  of 
substance  removed  from  the  blood. 

Inf. — The  'action  of  the  Lungs  will,  therefore,  depend  upon  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  air  they  receive,  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  blood  sent  to  them,  and  their  own  state  in  various  respects. 

[The  air  passes  into  and  out  of  the  lungs  through  the  windpipe> 
which  commences  by  an  opening  in  the  front  bottom  part  of  the  throat, 
from  which  it  passes  down  in  a  straight  line  into  the  chest,  when  it 
divides  into  two  branches,  which  again  in  a  short  distance  divide  and 
sub-divide,  and  terminate  in  clusters  of  sacks  or  bags.  Upon  the  sides 
of  these,  are  found  net-works  of  capillary  bloodvessels,  represented 

*  The  blood  is  frequently  called  life-giving,  &c.,  but  this  depends  upon  what  it  is 
composed  of.  It  may  be  death-causing.  The  blood  of  him  who  drinks  alcoholics  is  of 
a  baneful  character. 


the  Inf.  ?    What  is  the  substance  of  the  foot  note  1    H  53.  Describe  the  lungs  1    What 
is  the  object  of  the  lungs?    What  is  the  inference?    What  are  found  at  the  termina- 


60  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   PATHOLOGY. 

Striking  and  instructive  experiment  upon  air. 

very  much  magnified  by  Fig.  3,  PI.  3.  The  air  comes  into  these  sacks 
on  one  hand  and  the  blood  into  the  capillaries  on  the  other,  and  here 
situated,  the  blood  and  air  act  on  each  other,  and  the  qualities  of  each 
become  changed — the  blood  is  improved  and  the  air  vitiated.] 

Illus.  If  air  be  drawn  into  the  lungs,  and  thrown  out  again 
as  quickly  as  possible,  it  will  put  out  a  match  almost  as  quickly  as  if 
it  were  dipped  in  water. 

[The  experiment  may  be  tried  by  breaking  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of 
a  large  vial  (a  large  bottle  will  be  better  if  transparent)  ;  put  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vial  a  little  below  the  surface  of  water  in  a  pail,  apply  the 
mouth  to  the  nose  of  the  vial  and  draw  the  air  out  of  it  into  the  lungs, 
the  water  will  be  observed  to  follow  up  and  fill  the  via?  •  then  blow 
the  air  back  again  into  the  vial,  hold  it  still,  and  quickly  test  its  quality 
by  putting  a  lighted  match  into  it.] 


SEC.  B. — Kidneys,  as  excreting  organs. 

[The  importance  of  these  organs  is  exhibited  by  the  comparatively 
very  large  branches  of  bloodvessels  through  which  they  are  supplied, 
and  also  by  the  position  which  they  occupy — it  being  one  of  the  most 
favorable  for  receiving  the  blood  readily.] 

54.  The  Kidneys  are  two  in  number,  of  not  large  size, 
firm,  compact  made  organs,  situated  in  the  region  of  the  loins, 
one  upon  each  side,  and  a  little  distance  from  the  body  of  the 
backbone.  Their  duty,  as  excreting  organs,  is  to  separate 
from  the  large  quantity  of  blood  they  receive,  whatever  it  may 
contain  of  a  peculiar  useless  substance,  and  any  portion  of  its 
water  that  is  unnecessary. 

[Within  the  kidneys  is  what  is  called  the  pelvis  or  basin,  a  cavity 
which'  receives  the  excretion  from  the  delicate  tubes  in  the  sides  of 
the  organs.  From  this  pelvis,  a  large  tube  commences  and  leads 
down  into  a  reservoir,  the  bladder,  which  is  distensible,  and  also  con- 

tions  of  the  windpipe  1  What  exist  on  or  in  the  sides  of  these  sack?'?  What  tnkes 
place  in  the  sacks  1  What  is  the  Illus.  7  HOW  may  the  experiment  be  tried?  ilow 
is  the  importance  of  the  kidneys  exhibited  1  <J.>t.  Describe  the  kidneys.  What  is  ;licir 
duly  as-  excretive  organs  1  What  is  found  within  the  kidneys'?  Why  should  the  kid- 
neys remove  water  from  the  blood?  How  is  the  importance  of  the  skin  shown? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  61 

The  kidneys  facilitate  excretion  by  removing  water. 

tractile,  and  can  for  a  convenient  time  retain  what  is  removed  from 
the  blood  by  the  kidneys.] 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  11.—  k  k,  Kidneys,  s,  Spleen.  1,  Artery  (called 
abdominal  aorta),  from  which  branches  in  front  lead  to 
various  organs. 

Fig.  12.— Kidney.    P,  Pelvis.     U,  Ureter. 

[Precisely  why  it  is  necessary  for  the  kidneys  to  remove  all  the 
substance  they  do,  is  not  known,  but  why  they  or  some  organ  should 
remove  water  is  already  evident,  and  will  become  still  more  so  as  we 
progress.  To  wit:  if  there  be  a  great  deal  of  waste  substance  return- 
ing through  the  veins,  there  should  not  be  very  much  water — for  it  is 
evident,  the  more  water  there  is,  the  longer  will  the  waste  substance 
be  in  reaching  those  organs  by  which  it  is  to  be  cast  out.  Thus,  the 
kidneys  facilitate  excretion,  not  only  by  removing  the  solid  substance 
dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water,  but  also  at  -times  by  removing 
the  water  by  which  in  the  same  length  of  time  they  and  all  the  other 
excreting  organs  receive  much  more  substance  than  they  otherwise 
would.] 


SEC.  C. — The  Skin,  as  an  excreting  organ. 
[The  importance  of  this  organ,  is  at  once  evident  from  its  great 

55.  Describe  the  skin.  .  What  is  its  use  ?    What  exception  is  mentioned  in  regard  to 


62 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


A  great  amount  of  waste  substance  removed  by  the  skin. 

extent.    It  is  also  proved  by  the  fact,  that  upon  an  average,  more 
than  a  pound  per  day  leaves  the  body  through  this  organ.] 

55.  The  Skin  is  the  outward  covering  of  the  body.  It 
is  composed  of  several  different  parts.  Its  use  as  an  excreting 
organ  is  to  receive  the  blood  and  cause  certain  portions  to 
exude  in  the  form  of  perspiration  upon  it-,  surface 

FIG.  13. 


Fig.  13.— Section  of  the  skin  magnified.  1,  The  cuticle,  the  proportionate  thickness 
of  which  varies.  2,  Rete  mucosum  (mucous  net-work)  so  called  because  it  is  of  pasty 
consistence,  and  viewed  over  the  layers  beneath,  appears  in  the  form  of  a  net-work. 
It  varies  in  color  according  to  the  constitution  of  a  person,  its  frequent  deposition  from 
the  blood,  and  the  action  of  the  air  upon  it.  3,  Papillae,  in  which  the  nerves  commence. 
4,  Cutis-dermis  or  true  skin,  in  which  all  the  active  duties  of  the  skin  are  performed, 
and  which  in  health  depends  on  the  reception  of  blood  and  nervous  influence  by  the 
skin,  and  on  its  being  kept  clean.  5,  Cells  containing  fat.  6,  Perspiratory  gland/with 
a  spiral  duct,  such  as  seen  in  the  hand  or  foot.  7,  Another  gland  with  straight  duct. 
8,  Two  hairs.  9,  A  pair  of  oil  glands  with  tubes  opening  into"  the  hair  sheath. 


the  liver  1    What  is  the  portal  vein  1    if  56.  Describe  the  liver.    Describe  Fig.  14 — 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


63 


Interesting  and  important  exception  in  respect  to  the  liver. 


SEC.  D. — Tfo  Liver,  as  an  excreting  organ. 

[There  is  an  exception  in  regard  to  the  reception  of  blood  by  this 
organ  that  is  worthy  of  mention.  It  receives  blood  through  a  branch 
of  the  systemic  artery,  which  however  is  small,  compared  with  the 
duty  of  the  liver.  A  much  larger  quantity  of  blood  is  received  through 
what  is  called  the  portal  vein.  This  vein  is  a  trunk  formed  by  the 
veins  leading  from  five  different  organs  of  the  abdomen.  One  reason 
for  this  arrangement  seems  to  be,  that  the  liver  requires  in  its  opera- 
tions some  of  those  same  substances  which  the  lungs  remove.  There 
are  also  other  reasons  that  will  be  mentioned  hereafter.] 

56.  The  Liver  is  a  large  firm  organ,  occupying  the  upper 
and  right  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  extending  across  the 
centre  of  the  body  a  short  distance  into  the  left  side.  See 
Fig.  7,  and  (4.  Fig.  1.  PI.  3.)  also 

Fig.  14.  Fig.  15. 


Fig.  15. — Liver  seen  from  below. 
G.  Gall-bladder. 


Fig.  14. — Liver  seen  from  above. 


64  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Use  of  liver.    Bile  not  bitter.     Character  of  gall. 

The  use  of  the  liver  as  an  excreting  organ  is,  to  remove 
from  the  blood  certain  useless  substances,  the  amount  of 
which  very  much  varies  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
under  different  circumstances,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown. 

[The  substance  removed  by  the  liver  is  called  bile ;  is  a  rich  orange 
green  colored  limpid  fluid,  rather  sweetish  than  bitten.  It  flows  from 
the  liver  through  a  small  tube  into  the  Second  Stomach,  and  thus 
finds  its  way  from  the  system.] 

[The  Gall-bladder  and  its  contents  may  be  here  mentioned.  It  is  a 
conical  bag  situated  underneath  the  liver  (Fig.  15)  (9.  Fig.  1.  PI.  3.) 
Its  upper  and  back  extremity  terminates  in  a  tube  which  opens  into 
the  one  leading  from  the  liver.  The  contents  of  the  gall-bladder  are 
called  Gall.  It  is  a  very  dark  green,  viscid,  exceedingly  bitter  fluid, 
and  flows  from  the  gall-bladder  into  the  second  stomach.  It  should 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  bile,  which  in  taste  at  least  it  is  much 
unlike.  More  will  be  said  about  it  hereafter.] 

SEC.  E. — Second  Stomach  and  Colon,  as  organs  of 
excretion. 

57.  The  Second  Stomach  is  the  name  by  which  I  shall 
speak  of  a  long  tube  commencing  at  the  small  extremity  of 
the  stomacl}  (Fig.  7),  occupying  the  central  portion  of  the 
abdomen,  and  terminating  in  the  lower  right  side  of  it  in  the 
colon  (7.  7.  7.  Fig.  1.  PI.  3.). 

58.  Tfa  Colon  is  a  large  tube  or  canal  commencing  in 
the  lower  right  side  of  the  abdomen,  thence  extending  up 
underneath  the  front  thin  edge  of  the  liver  (Fig.  1.  PI.  3.), 
and  across  to  the  left  side,  then  downward  as  seen  in  Fig.  16. 
The  uses  of  the  colon  and  second  stomach  as  excreting  or- 
gans, is  to  remove  useless  sustance  from  the  blood. 

also  Fig.  15.  What  is  the  >>ic  ^f 'lie  liver?  What  is  the  substance  removed  by  it 
called?  Describe!::  .'  Describe  the  gall-bladder.  Describe 

the  gall.  What  is 'ho  second  3io:nacii  VVliat  is  the  colon?  What  are  the  uses  of 
the  second  stomach  am;  colon  ?  In  which  part  does  the  colon  commence  1  Where  does 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


65 


Fig.  16. 


AC 


DC 


Fig.  16.— Colon.     S  S,  Termination  of  the  second  stomach.    V  a,  A  tube  with  only 
<^  one  opening— the  use  is  not  known — called  ver- 

miform (worm-shaped)  appendage.  C,  Coecum, 
into  which  the  second  stomach  opens  a  little  above 
its  lower  end.  At  the  opening  a  valvular  arrange- 
ment exists  (as  seen  at  a  in  the  small  cut),  to  pre- 
vent any  thing  passing  back  from  the  colon.  A  C, 
Ascending  colon.  T  C,  Transverse  colon.  DC, 
.Descending  colon.  S,  Sigmoid  flexure  (S-like 
bend)  of  the  colon.  R,  Rectum.  The  colon  seems 
to  be  pouched.  This  is  caused  by  a  larger  num- 
ber of  ring-muscular  fibres  being  found  at  certain 
places  than  at  others,  and  by  the  contraction  of 
the  longitudinal  (lengthwise)  fibres  represented  by  the  band. 

the  second  stomach?    Wh.it  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  IV.  1    What  is  evident  1    Whai 
is  probable  1     How  ihight  these  objects  be  gained,  firstly  1     Secondly  1     Thirdly  1 


66        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


How  flow  of  blood  may  be  increased.    Important  question. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

Organic  Nervous  System. ) 


[It  is  evident,  that,  as  the  action  of  the  different  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem varies  at  different  times,  so  also  the  amount  of  useless  substance 
to  be  removed  will  correspondingly  vary^  It  is  also  probable(that  the 
kinds  of  substance  to  be  removed  by  the  different  excreting  organs 
vary  at  different  times.  Hence  it  follows,  that  the  flow  of  substance 
toward  all  the  excreting  organs  should  be  at  times  increased,  and  to- 
ward one  only  of  them  at  other  times.  These  objects  might  be  in 
part  or  wholly  gained  by  six  ways?}  Ist/The  action  of  the  parts 
which  produce  the  useless,  substance  might  be  supposed  to  force  it  on 
through  the  veins.  2d.  The  more  rapid  contractions  of  the  heart 
would  pour  the  blo'od  on  with  increased  rapidity.  3d.  If  the  bloodves- 
sels in  any  excreting  organ  should  be  increased  in  size,  more  blood 
would  be  caused  to  flow  that  way.  4th.  The  change  which  takes 
place  in  the  blood  may  be  the  means  of  drawing  more  blood  to  that 
organ.  5th.  -A  diminution  of  the  watery  part  of  the  blood.)  6th.  H3y 
contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  capillary  bloodvessels  of  the  organs 
of  excretiony  Some  attribute  very  little  consequence  to  one  of  these 
causes,  and  some  regard  another  as  of  little  value.  (One  thing  is  cer- 
tain, either  by  one  or  all  the  above-mentioned  ways,  or  in  some  other 
ways,  the  flow  of  blood  is  increased  or  diminished  in  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  perfect  manner,  and  as  the  case  requires?) 

[A  most  important  question  now  arises.  viz.^VVhat  causes  the  in- 
creased and  diminished  action)  {Here  is  an  effect  which  must  have  a 
cause  or  an  influence  to  produce  i|j(  It  is  called  nervous  influence. 
We  know  but  little  about  it)  fit  is  distinguished  as  the  involuntary 
^nervous  influence,  because  it  is  exerted  without  any  direct  control  of 
the  mind)  It  is  also  called  the  Organic  nervous  influence.  What  its 
source  is,  is  not  certainly  known.  It  is  spoken  of  as  the  nervous  cen- 
tre of  organic  life.  Nor  is  it  certainly  known  through  what  nerves  or 

Fourthly?  Fifthly?  Sixthly?  What  is  an  excreting  organ?  What  is  meant  by 
a  contraction  of  the  heart?  What  parts  produce  the  useless  substance?  What  is 
certain?  What  question  now  arises?  Must  every  action  have  a  cause?  Mention 
one.  What  is  the  nervous  influence  ?  How  distinguished  ?  What  does  harmonious 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  67 

Organic  nervous  system  necessary.     Disease  should  be  checked  in  the  outset. 

how  it  is  exerted.  Some  suppose  that  there  are  several  centres,  and 
several  means  of  communication  between  the  different  centres  and  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body.  Though  our  knowledge  is  so  indefinite  on 
these  points,  the  harmonious  actions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem seem  to  indicate  |hat  there  is  a  common  centre,  a  political  capi- 
tal, so  to  speak,  in  which  all  parts  of  the  body  communicate  in  such  a 
way  that  every  state  of  any  part  will  produce  a  certain  and  necessary 
effect,  on  account  of  which  a  certain  and  necessary  effect  shall  be  pro- 
duced on  every  part,  the  action  of  which  ought  to  be  modified  by  ex- 
isting circumstances^  Thus  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  body  can 
produce  an  effect  on  each  other.  Though  not  a  perfect  illustration, 
yet  it  will  be  often  noticed  that  tickling  a  person  will  cause  him  to 
laugh  despite  his  wishes!  That  is,  the  state  of  one  part  produced  by 
tickling,  produces  an  effect  on  a  nervous  centre,  and  that  causes  cer- 
tain effects  on  other  parts.  •  I  have  known  a  lady  who  could  not  eat  a 
single  strawberry  without  In  a  few  moments  having  an  appearance 
upon  the  skin  as  if  she  had  the  measles.  The  state  produced  by  the 
strawberry  in  the  stomach  caused  an  effect  4>n  a  nervous  centre,  and 
from  that  an  effect  was  produced  on  the  skinjj 
[In  this  work  it  will  be  taken  for  granted  that] 

59.  fin  the  Human  System,  in  addition  to  that  upon 
which  the  mind  directly  acts,  there  is  a  nervous  system,  by 
means  of  which,  in  the  most  wonderful  manner,  the  action  of 
all  parts  of  the  body  is  regulated,  and  which  is  constantly 
acted  upon  by  all  parts  of  the  bodyJ 

Inf.  a. — Any  part  being  diseased,  cannot  exert  a  healthful  influ- 
ence, and  otjier  pa,rts  must  feel  the  effects  of  it.) 

Inf.  A.-f-The  longer  any  unhealthy  influences  are  allowed  to  act, 
the  more  extended  and  complicated  will  be  the  effects.  We  should 
therefore  nip  disease  in  the  bud,  when  of  course  it  must  be  compara- 
tively easy  to  master  i£j 

Concluding  Remarks  on  Excretion. 

[If  we  review  the  process  of  excretion,  as  discussed  in  this  Chap- 
ter, it  will  appear,] 

mean  ?  What  does  the  harmonious  action  of  the  system  indicate  1  What  illustration 
is  given 7  Can  you  give  another  ?  How  is  this  explained?  What  case  is  mentioned  1 
IT  59.  What  is  taken  for  granted  in  this  work  1  What  is  Inf.  a.  ?  What  is  In.fb.  1  Is 


68         ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

What  is  necessary  to  accomplish  excretion. 

60.  1st.  (Excretion  is  rendered  necessary  by  the  action  of 
the  system,  which  renders  a  corresponding  amount  of  sub- 
stance useless,  j 

6 1 .  2d.(,Excretion  is  for  the  purpose  of  removing  from 
the  system  all  useless  substance^ 

62.  3d.  To  accomplish  the  process  of  excretion,  five  classes 
of  organs  are  necessary,  viz.,  the  Lungs,  the  Kidneys,  the 
Skin,  the  Liver,  the  Second  Stomach  and  Colon.N, 

63.  4th.  (To  transport  the  useless  substance  from  where  it 
is  produced  to  the  excreting  organs,  three  kinds  of  blood- 
vessels and  two  hearts  are  required,  viz.,  the  Systemic  and 
Pulmonary  Arteries,  the    Capillaries,  the  Systemic,  Pulmo- 
nary, and  Portal  Veins,  the  Right  Heart  and  the  Left  Heart 
(the  whole  being  called  the  circulatory  organs^ 

64/J7b  regulate  the  action  of  the  organs  concerned  in  ex- 
jretion.  a  nervous  system  acting  involuntarily  is  required. 

65.  Air  and  water  are  also  required  to  facilitate  the 
action  of  the  organs  concerned  in  the  process  of  excretion. 

a  cold  a  disease  ?  Ought  it  to  be  attended  to  when  it  first  commences  ?  Which  will 
be  easiest  and  best,  to  prevent  it  altogether,  or  to  cure  it  even  in  its  beginning  ?  Can 
you  take  cold  if  you  try  to  ?  How  could  you  do  it  ?  Do  you  think  a  person  ever  takes 
cold  without  doing  something  he  ought  not?  Repeat  H  60.  Repeat  IF  61.  Repeat 
II  62.  Repeat  fi  63.  Repeat  IF  64.  Repeat  IF  65.  How  much  air  and  water  will  be 
necessary  ? 


BOOK  II. 

SECOND    GRAND    DUTY NUTRITION. 

66.  The  process  of  Nutrition  is  rendered  necessary  by 
.the  constant  change  produced  in  the  system  by  its  action, 
and  is  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting  those  parts  which  have, 
by  action,  lost  a  portion  of  their  substance.) 

67.  Three  things  are  necessary.      lst(^That  proper   sub- 
stances for  renewing  the  system  be  received  by  ift   2d.  (That 
these  substances  be  properly  prepared^    3d.  /That  they  be 
carried  to  the  parts  requiring  them  j 


CHAPTER   I. 

Nourishment. 

68.  Nourishment  is  the  name  given  to  the  substances  re- 
quired to  form,  or  reform,  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 

69.  The  nourishment  must  Mof  the  same  nature  as  the 
parts  to  be  nourished.  }• 

[It  is  not  meant  by  this  that  to  nourish  the  bones  it  is^  necessary 
that  bones  be  taken  into  the  body^  but  this  is  the  idea :  ."The  bones 
are  composed  of  certain  substances  called  elements,  which  united 
together  in  peculiar  ways  will  produce  bones.  No  one  would  know 
by  looking  at  bread  that  it  was  made  of  wheat,  salt,  yeast,  water,  &c. 
The  elements  that  form  the  bones  might  be  eaten  without  a  person 
knowing  it  from  their  appearance.  The  cow  eats  grass,  and  from  the 

What  is  the  subject  of  Book  II,  ?    if  66.  What  renders  nutrition  necessary  1    IT  67. 
W3    t  is  necessary,  first  1   Second'?   Third?   H  68.  What  is  nourishment  1   IT  69.  What 


70 

Certain  kinds  of  food  necessary— Effect  of  heating  food. 

elements  composing  the  grass  each  part  of  her  body,  and  even  the 
milk  she  gives,  is  formed.  Chips,  however,  do  not  contain  the  same 
elements  as  grass,  and  the  cow  could  not  live  upon  them.  Upon  the 
same  principle,  in  one  form  or  another,  it  is  necessary  that  the  human 
system  should  receive  those  elements  of  which  the  body  is  composed.}; 
[That  they  are  received^n  the  form  of  what  is  called  foodj  is  cer- 
tain/from the  fact  that  the  more  active  a  person  j.s  the  greater  appe- 
tite does  he  have,  and  the  more  food  does  he  eat.]} 

70.  The  amount  of  nourishment  a  person  should  take 
will  evidently  depend  on  the  action  to  which  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  are  subject, 


CHAPTER   II. 

Preparation  of  Nourishment. 

[In  the  present  state  of  knowledge  it  would  not  be  possible  to 
conjecture  what  process  it  would  be  necessary  the  nutriment  should 
pass  through.  We  must,  there  fore,  (learn  what  state  of  things  exists, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  what  process  the  food  passes  through.) 

SEC.  A. —  Cooking. 

71.  Experience  proves  that  some  articles  are  partly  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  the  system  by  subjecting  them  to  heat. 

Illus. — Starch  (which  is  found  in  many  articles  of  food)  though 
not  properly  nutriment,  will  be  good  for  illustration.  It  is  composed 
of  small  kernels.  These  are  composed  of  concentric  layers,  as  an 
onion  is.  The  outer  layer  is  not  easily  acted  upon  in  the  body,  but  is 
cracked  open  by  heat  of  a  boiling  temperature.  Whence  it  is  found 
that  all  kinds  of  animals  fatten  on  much  less  food  if  it  have  been 
boiled. 

must  the  nourishment  be  ?  What  is  not  meant?  What  is  1  What  is  the  meaning  of 
element  ?  Does  the  grass  took  as  if  it  contained  the  elements  of  bone  ?  Does  it  ? 
How  do  you  know  ?  Is  there  any  thing  else  that  does  ?  How  are  these  elemems  re- 
ceived by  man?  How  is  it  certain?  if  70.  On  what  should  the  amount  of  nourish- 
ment depend?  Why?  How  do  we  determine  how  food  is  prepared?  Why  is  thia 
necessary  ?  f  71.  What  does  experience  prove  in  regard  to  cooking  ?  What  is  said  ol 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  71 

Light  food  better  than  heavy.    The  stomach. 

Inf. — The  degree  of  heat  and  the  length  of  time  an  article  was 
exposed  to  it,  would  have  something  to  do  with  the  fitness  of  an 
article  for  the  use  of  the  system. 

72.  Experience  also  teaches  that  the  manner  in  which 
articles  are  combined  adapts  them  more  or  less  to  the  use 
of  the  system. 

Illus.— Bread  made  so  as  to  be  light  is  much  better  than  "  heavy  " 
food. 

lnf  —That  the  art  of  preparing  food  is  of  great  consequence. 


SEC.  'B.—Tke  Mouth. 

73.  The  mouth  is  that  part  in  which  the  food,  contain- 
ing nutriment,  is  first  received.     Its  use  in  respect  to  nutri- 
tion is,  to  grind  the  food  between  the  teeth,  and  cause  it  to 
be  mingled  with  the  saliva. 

[The  saliva  is  a  fluid  formed  from  the  blood  in  small  organs,  called 
glands,  three  in  each  side  of  the  face.  Its  use  evidently  is,  to  soften 
the  food,  and  facilitate  its  passage  into  the  stomach.  Some  think,  it 
is  of  much  importance  in  the  process  that  takes  place  there ;  some 
do  not.] 

[After  being  acted  upon  by  the  teeth  and  mingled  with  the  saliva, 
food  is  gathered  by  the  tongue  into  a  ball,  and  rolled  back  into  the 
throat,  from  the  lower  part  of  which  it  is  received  by  a  muscular 
tube,  called  the  meat  pipe,  and  by  its  contractions  carried  down  into 
the  stomach.] 

SEC.  C. — The  Stomach,  as  an  organ  of  nutrition, 

74.  TJie  Stomach  is  a  sac    or    pouch,  very  much  like  a 
common  bladder,  except  in   shape.      It  has   two   openings. 
Through   the   one   it   receives   food    from   the    meat   pipe. 
Through  the  other,  the  food,  having  awhile  remained  in  the 

starch  7     Wfiat  effect  would  cooking  starch  have  in  respect  to  other  animals  ?    it  72. 
What  else  does  experience  teach?    What  is  the  Blue.  ?    What  the  Inf.?    U  73.  What 


72  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOG1. 

Positions  of  stomach  vary.    How  digestion  is  accomplished. 

stomach,  passes  out  little  by  little,  in  the  form  of  a  grey 
paste,  called  chyme.  The  stomach  is  situated  in  the  upper 
and  central  part  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  7.)  (5  Fig.  1,  PL  4). 
The  position,  however,  changes  as  the  breath  is  drawn  in  and 
thrown  out,  and  the  space  which  it  occupies  varies  with  the 
quantity  of  its  contents.  Its  use  is  to  receive  food  from  the 
meat  pipe  or  oesophagus,  retain  it  for  awhile,  cause  it  to 
be  changed  into  chyme,  and  to  pass  it  on  into  the  second 
stomach. 

[The  process  taking  place  in  the  stomach  is  called  the  first  process 
of  digestion.] 

75.  The  digestion  of  the  food  in  the  stomach,  is  accom- 
plished,  1  st,  By  the  distension  of  the  stomach. 

[Mouthful  after  mouthful  is  received  by  the  distending  stomach, 
till  it  is  stretched  to  its  utmost  limit,  like  as  the  bladder  used  by  boys 
for  a  foot-ball  grows  larger  at  each  reception  of  air,  and  contracts  the 
instant  it  is  let  out.  The  stomach  is,  therefore,  always  full.] 

76.  The  digestion  of  food  is  accomplished  in  the  stomach, 
2dly,  By  the  formation  from  the  blood  of  a  fluid,  called 
gastric  (stomach)  juice,  in  the  sides  of  the  stomach  and  the 
exudation  of  it  into  the  stomach. 

[This  is  one  of  the  most  peculiar  and  important  fluids  in  the  whole 
body.  Though  the  chemist  knows  the  elements  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, he  has  not  yet  been  able  to  control  them  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  compel  them  to  combine  as  they  exist  in  this  wonderful  fluid.  It 
flows  into  the  stomach  in  very  much  the  same  manner  as  the  per- 
spiration starts  on  the  side  of  the  face,  and  varies  in  quantity  as  the 
wants  of  the  system  require  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  food.] 

is  the  mouth?  What  is  its  use?  What  is  the  saliva?  What  is  its  more  common 
name?  After  the  food  is  chewed,  what  takes' place?  What  appearance  has  the  food 
as  it  passes  from  the  mouth?  What  is  the  stomach?  What  is  chyme  ?  Where  is  it 
found  ?  Where  is  the  stomach  situated  ?  How  does  its  size  vary  ?"  What  is  its  use  ? 
What  is  the  first  process  of  digestion  ?  H  75.  How  is  digestion  in  the  stomach  accom- 
plished, firstly  ?  To  what  is  its  distension  compared  ?  H  76.  How  is  digestion  accom- 
plished, secondly?  What  is  said  of  the  gastric  juice?  What  does  gastric  mean? 
it  77.  How  is  digestion  accomplished,  thirdly  ?  How  do  the  contractions  take  place  1 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  73 

Cold  substances  injurious  to  the  stomach  when  in  health. 

77.  The  digestion  of  food  in  the  stomach  is  accomplished, 
3dly,  By  the  contractions  of  the  sides  of  the  stomach. 

[The  large  part  of  the  stomach  contracts  first,  and  presses  the  food 
along  into  the  small  extremity,  which  in  its  turn  contracting,  presses 
the  food  back  again.  Thus  is  it  mingled  with  the  gastric  juice,  which 
saturates  every  part  of  it.] 

78.  The  digestion  of  food  in  the  stomach  is  accomplished, 
4thly,  By  the  temperature  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  the 
stomach. 

[The  temperature  of  the  stomach  is  found  to  rise  after  eating  and, 
if  it  be  lowered,  digestion  is  retarded.] 

Inf. — The  use  of  iced  water,  cream,  dessert,  &c.,  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  stomach,  must  be  injurious. 

[This  is  almost  always  done  by  the  use  of  the  articles  mentioned.] 

SEC.  D. — Second  Stomach,  in  respect  to  nutrition. 

79.  The,  Second  Stomach  is.the  same  heretofore  spoken 
of.     Its  use  in  respect  to  nutrition,  is  to  receive  the  chyme 
little  by  little  as  it  comes  from  the  stomach,  pass  it  slowly 
through  itself,  and  cause  a  portion  of  it  to  be  changed  into  a 
milk-colored  fluid  called  chyle. 

80.  Tlw  duties  of  the  Second  Stomach  in   respect   to 
digestion  are  performed,  1st,  By  the  alternate  contractions 
and  relaxations  of  its  sides. 

[By  this  means,  the  contents  of  the  second  stomacli  are  slowly 
passed  through  it,  and  also  mingled  with  the  fluids  it  meets  in  that 
organ.] 

81.  The  duties  of  the  Second  Stomach  in  respect  to  diges- 
tion are  accomplished,    2dly,  By  means  of  the  pancreatic 
juice. 

What,  is  meant  by  contractions  of  the  stomach  ?  if  78.  How  is  digestion  accomplish- 
ed, fourthly?  What  is  meant  by  temperature?  Did  you  ever  feel  a  chill  in  the  sto- 
mach after  drinking  freely  of  cold  water  ?  Was  it  pleasant  or  unpleasant  ?  What 
would  that  signify  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  If  79.  What  is  the  second  stomach  ?  What 
is  its  use  in  digestion  1  How  many -uses  does  it  serve  1  What  is  chyle  1  Do  you  sup- 
pose chyle  will  always  appear  alike  1  How  is  digestion  in  the  second  stomach  per- 


74         ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Pancreas— Gall  and  bile  in  second  stomach. 


[This  is  a  fluid  formed  in  what  is  called  the  pancreas.    It  is  similar 
Fig.  17. 


Fig.  16.—1,  Liver  turned  up  and  laid  back.  2,  Fissures  in  the  under  surface  of  the 
liver.  3,  Gall-bladder.  4,  Stomach.  5,  Lower  portion  of  ceso^Iiagus.  6.  Pylorus. 
9,  Head  of  pancreas.  22,  Small  extremity  of  pancreas.  10  Spleen.  13  to  24,  Blood- 
vessels. A,  Opening  of  the  ducts  from  the  pancreas,  liver,  and  gall-bladder.  B,  Du- 
odenum open,  that  the  folds  of  its  internal  surface  may  be  seen. 

in  general  appearance  to  the  saliva,  and  flows  through  a  short  tube 
into  the  second  stomach  about  three  inches  from  its  commencement. 
The  particular  use  of  the  juice  is  not  known.] 

82.  The  duties  of  the  Second  Stomach  in  respect  to 
digestion  are  accomplished,  3dly.  By  means  of  the  bile  and 
gall. 

[These  fluids  find  their  way  into  the  second  stomach  nearly  at  the 
same  point  with  the  pancreatic  juice.  Their  particular  use  in  the 
second  stomach  is  not  known.] 


formed,  firstly'?  What  is  tbe  effect?  What  says  It  81 1  What  is  the  pancreatic  juice! 
Describe  Fig.  17.  H  82.  What  is  said  of  the  gall  and  bile  ?  Hoir  do  they  conspicuously 
differ  7  H  83  What  are  the  lacteals  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  lacteal?  What  and 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


75 


Lacteale —Thoracic  duct — Course  of  the  chyle. 


Fig.  18. 

SEC.  E.— The  Lacteals. 

83.  The  Lacteals  (milk) 
called  also  chyliferous 
(chyle-bearing)  vessels,  are 
."a  set  of  tubes,  commencing 
very  small  in  the  sides  of 
the  second  stomach,  but 
gradually  uniting  together 
till  they  form  a  single  one, 
called  the  Thoracic  duct 
(chest  tube).  This  leads 
up  in  the  front  of  the  back 
bone  as  far  as  to  the  neck, 
when  it  turns  forward, 
bends  over  and  opens  into 
the  large  neck  veins.  Its 
use  is  to  gather  up  the 
chyle,  from  the  second 
stomach,  cause  it  to  un- 
dergo some  modifications 
and  pass  it  into  the  blood- 
vessels. 

[How  they  gather  up  the 
chyle  is  not  certainly  known, 
nor  are  the  operations  they 
perform  on  their  contents,  nor 
is  the  manner  in  which  they 
pass  their  contents  through 
themselves.  How  much  or 
what  preparation  the  nutri- 

Fig.  18.— 1.  2,  3,  Aorta.  4,  5,  6,  Arteries,  branching  from  the  aorta.  7,  8,  9, 
10,  11,  Certain  veins,  called  venae  azygos.  12,  Enlargement  of  the  thoracic  duct,  called 
the  receptaculum  chyli.  13.  14,  Thoracic  duct.  At  14,  a  lymphatic  vessel  is  ?eea 
opening  into  the  thoracic  duct.  15,  Lymphatic  of  the  right  side.  A,  Lacteals  com- 
mencing from  the  second  stomach.  B,  A  portion  of  lymphatics  from  the  lower  parts 
of  the  body. 


76  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Concluding  remarks  on  nutrition. 

ment  requires,  after  it  is  passed  into  the  bloodvessels,  cannot  be  said, 
but  the  process  of  preparation  is  then  considered  to  be  finished  and 
the  nutriment  ready  for  distribution.] 


CHAPTER   in. 

Distribution  of  Nutriment. 

84.  Nothing  could  be  more  desirable  for  the  distribution 
of  nourishment  than  the  arrangement  of  the  bloodvessels  and 
hearts  as  before  described. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life. 

85.  The  increased  and  diminished  action  whieh  would 
at  various  times  be  required  of  the  organs  engaged  in  pre- 
paring and  distributing  nutriment,  would  render  it  necessary 
that  these  organs  be  placed  under  the  influence  of  the  ner- 
vous system  of  organic  life. 

Concluding  Remarks  on  Nutrition. 

86.  Nutrition  is  rendered  necessary  on  account  of  the 
changes  produced  in  the  system  by  its  action. 

87.  Nutrition  of  the  body  renders  it  necessary  that  such 

where  is  the  thoracic  duct  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  lacteals  ?  Describe  Fig  18.  Is 
the  nutriment  prepared  in  the  bloodvessels  1  What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  III.  ?  ^84. 
What  is  said  in  U  84 1  Describe  the  bloodvessels.  Describe  the  hearts.  Can  you  and 
will  you  draw,  on  the  black-board,  an  outline  of  some  or  all  of  the  bloodvessels  and 
hearts  ?  H  85.  Why  is  the  organic  nervous  system  necessary  1  What  do  you  under- 
stand by  the  organic  nervous  system  ?  If  a  person  be  very  active,  ought  the  stomach 
to  be  so  influenced  thereby  as  to  digest  more  food,  if  furnished,  in  the  same  length  of 
timel  What  is  said  in  IT  86?  What  is  said  in  IF  87  7  What  is  said  in  *  88 1  What  are 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  77 

Concluding  remarks  on  nutrition. 

substances  be  received  by  the  body,  as  contain  the  same  ele- 
ments as  the  parts  that  are  to  be  nourished  by  them. 

88.  The  preparation  of  this  substance  renders  necessary, 
1st.  The  mouth.      2d.  The  stomach.     3d.  The  second  sto- 
mach, pancreas,  and  liver.     4th.  The  lacteals. 

89.  The  distribution  of  the  nutriment  renders  the  circu- 
latory organs  necessary. 

90.  The  increased  and  diminished  action  required  at 
different  times,  renders  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life 
necessary. 

91.  The  formation  of  the  fluids  required  in  the  digestive 
organs,  and  the  distribution  of  the  nutriment,  renders  the 
reception  of  water  necessary  to  the  system. 

92.  As  the  distribution  of  the  nutriment  should  be  more 
rapid  at  one  time  than  another,  such  organs  as  the  kidneys 
will  be  required,  that  the  quantity  of  water  may  be  at  times 
diminished,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  blood  made  more  rich 
in  nutriment. 


the  circulatory  organs  1  IT  89.  Why  are  they  necessary  ?  What  is  said  in  If  90  ?  IT  91. 
Why  is  water  necessary?  How  much  of  it  ia  necessary?  fi  92.  Why  are  the  kidneys 
necessary  1 


BOOK  III. 

THIRD  GRAND  DUTY TO  KEEP  THE  BODY  WARM. 

93.  To  keep  the  body  warm,  three  things  are  necessary. 
Heat  must  be  1st,  produced;  2d,  distributed;  3d,  preserved. 

CHAPTER    I. 
The  Production  of  Heat. 

94.  Heat  is  produced  in  the  system  by  means  of,  1st. 
Exercise.     2d.    Food.     3d.    Air.     4th.    The   action   of  the 
kidneys. 

SEC.  A. — Exercise,  in  the  Production  of  Heat. 

[That  the  changes  taking  place  when  any  part  of  the  body  is  active 
might  produce  heat,  would  be  evident  to  every  chemist,  as  he  knows 
that  scarcely  ever  does  a  change  take  place  in  any  thing  without 
affecting  its  temperature.] 

Illus.  a. — Slaking  lime  produces  great  heat. 

Illus.  b. — Mingling  snow  and  salt  produces  a  great  degree  of  cold. 

[That  the  action  of  some  parts  of  the  body  is  attended  with  the  pro- 
duction of  heat,  is  evident  to  any  one  who  notices  the  effect  of  exer- 
cising the  muscles ;  which  is  also  proved  by  experiment  to  increase 


What  is  the  subject  of  Book  III.  ?     TT  93.  To  keep  the  body  warm,  how  and  what 

'iat  means,  first?    Second?    Third  1 
does  every  chemist  know?    What 


things  are  necessary  ?   fl  94.  Heat  is  produced  by  what  means,  first?    Second?    Third? 
Fourth?    What  is  the  subject  of  Sec.  A.?    What  does  ever 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  79 

Action  of  the  body  supplies  it  with  fuel. 

their  heat  to  a  greater  degree  than  could  be  accounted  for  in  any 
other  way.] 

[As  the  wearing  of  the  factory  supplies  some  articles  which  may 
be  used  as  fuel,  so  the  action  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body  may 
supply  materials  which  may  be  called  fuel,  since  they  are  of  such 
nature  that  they  may  be  burned.  That  this  is  so,  is  also  Droved  from 
this,  that  much  of  a  certain  substance  which  in  winter  is  carried  from 
the  body  by  means  of  the  lungs,  and  heat  thus  produced,  is  in  sum- 
mer carried  out  by  the  liver,  and  the  production  of  heat  prevented, 
therefore] — 

95.  Exercise  may  be  prodttctive  of  heat  in  two  ways :  1st, 
by  the  immediate  effect  of  the  changes  it  produces ;  2d,  by 
furnishing  an  amount  of  fuel. 


SEC.  B. — Food,  in  the  Production  of  Heat. 

[All  animals  are  inclined  to  eat  more  food  in  winter  than  in  sum- 
mer. Fish  require  scarcely  any  food  to  support  life ;  because,  in  the 
first  place,  they  take  comparatively  little  exercise,  and  that  not  diffi- 
cult, as  the  waters  in  which  they  swim  are  nearly  their  own  gravity; 
and  in  the  second  place,  their  temperature  is  nearly  that  of  the  water 
surrounding  them.*  Warm-bloooded  fish  are  greater  eaters.  Man 
and  animals  find  different  kinds  of  food  furnished  by  nature  for  them 
in  different  climates,  and  also  different  seasons  of  the  year.  In  winter 
we  are  inclined  to  eat  more  of  some  kinds  of  food  than  we  are  in 
summer.] 

*  These  are  the  reasons  why  the  waters  can  be  so  plentifully  stored  with  fish— why 
also  fish  grow  so  fast  if  fed — and  why  fish  are  the  most  profitable  of  all  animals  to 
keep.  Just  a  trough  or  barrel,  with  a  grating  over  it,  and  a  small  stream  (as  large  as 
a  pipe  stem  is  sufficient)  running  through  it,  is  all  the  first  cost ;  and  the  crumbs  from 
a  family  will  supply  it  with  delicious  fish.  They  should  be  caught  young  and  put  in. 
If  a  stream  be  not  attainable,  changing  the  water  frequently  will  answer.  A  small 
fish-pond,  20  feet  square  by  3  deep,  is  better. 

is  lllus.  a.l  What  is  Illus.  b.  ?  What  is  evident  to  any  one?  What  does  experiment 
prove  1  Did  you  ever  see  a  stage-driver  "  thrash  "  his  hands  ?  Does  exercise  warm 
a  person  better  than  atmost  any  wayl  What  is  supplied  by  the  action  of  the  body  ? 
How  is  this  proved  ?  H  95.  How  may  exercise  be  productive  of  heat ?  What  is  the 
subject  of  Sec.  B.  ?  What  is  true  of  all  animals'?  What  of  fish?  What  is  the  sub- 
stance of  the  foot  note  7  Are  all  kinds  of  food  equally  easily  found  at  different  seasons 


80         ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Food  of  two  kinds.    We  breathe  most  air  when  it  is  coldest. 

Illus. — Buckwheat  cakes,  with  butter  and  molasses,  &c.  are  de- 
sired by  almost  every  one  in  the  fall  and  winter,  but  are  discarded  in 
summer. 

[An  examination  shows  that  those  kinds  of  food  of  which  we  are 
very  fond  in  cold  weather  (starchy,  sweet,  fatty,  gummy  food),  are 
not  from  their  nature  capable  of  nourishing  the  body,  hence] — 

96.  Food  must  contain  not  only  nutriment,  but*  also  what 
may  be  called  Fuel,  since  it  it  is  used  in   the  production  of 
heat. 

97.  The  Fuel  of  the  food  passes  through  the  same  pre- 
paration as  the  nutriment,  and  the  same  organs  are  required. 

[As  the  fuel  of  the  food  differs  in  its  character  from  the  nutri- 
ment portion,  it  is  probable  that  it  does  in  reality  pass  through  a 
different  process  from  the  nutriment  in  its  way  through  the  digestive 
organs.  Indeed,  the  state  of  the  fluids  furnished  to  those  organs 
varies  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  at  different  times.] 

Illus.  a.— The  gastric  (stomach)  juice  of  a  dog  will  not  act  upon 
grass,  neither  will  that  of  a  sheep  upon  meat.  They  both  will,  how- 
ever, upon  bread. 

[There  is,  as  yet,  no  appreciable  difference  to  be  found  in  the 
composition  of  the  juices  of  the  two  animals.  Yet  there  must  be,  as 
there  is  a  difference  in  their  effect.] 

Illus.  b—  More  bile  is  formed  in  case  of  those  animals  living  upon 
grasses  than  in  those  living  upon  meat  food,  and  there  is  more  formed 
in  case  of  man  generally  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

[But  the  difference  in  the  action  to  which  the  different  kinds  of 
food  have  been  subjected  has  not  been  determined.  Both  kinds  are 
usually  eaten  at  the  same  time,  and  pass  through  their  course  of  pre- 
paration together.] 


'  SEC.  C.— Air. 

[In  cold  weather  more  air  passes  into  the  lungs  than  in  warm.  An 
equal  quantity  of  air  has  a  greater  change  produced  in  it  when  cold, 

of  the  year  1  When  can  the  squirrels  find  nuts  ?  When  do  they  lire  on  berries  ? 
What  is  the  Illus.  7  What  kind  of  food  contains  starch?  What  kind  contains 
sweets  ?  What  kind  is  honey  ofl  Can  you  mention  some  kinds  containing  gummy 
substance  J  Of  what  kind  is  butter?  U  96.  What  must  food  contain!  »  97.  How 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  81 

Air  useful  in  producing  heat— also  the  kidneys. 

than  when  warm  as  it  is  received.  Those  organs  in  which  the  air  is 
directly  received,are  warmer  than  other  parts  of  the  body.  As  the  cold 
air  removes  much  more  heat  from  the  body  than  warm,  according  to 
the  uniform  constitution  of  the  universe,  air  ought  to  be  so  constituted 
as  to  correct  the  evil  which  it  would  otherwise  produce.  We  also  know 
that  air  is  necessary,  in  all  the  ordinary  modes  of  producing  heat.] 

98.  Air  may  be  useful  in  producing  heat  in  two  ways. 
1st.  By  uniting  directly  with  the  fuel  of  the  blood.     2d.  By 
uniting  with  other  parts  of  the  blood  and  going  with  them 
into  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  uniting  with  the  fuel 
here  and  there. 

[Without  doubt  both  things  take  place,  though   some  persons 
argue  entirely  for  one  way,  some  for  the  other.] 

99.  The  Lungs  and  other  parts  of  the  respiratory  appa- 
ratus, as  already  described,  will  be  admirably  adapted  for 
allowing  the  air  to  act  upon  or  through  the  blood,  in  any 
way  that  is  necessary. 


SEC.  D. — The  Kidney s,  in  the  Production  of  Heat. 

[The  kidneys  are  not  directly  concerned  in  the  production  of  heat. 
As,  however,  the  fuel  produced  by  exercise,  and  that  obtained  from 
the  food,  is  passed  into  the  bloodvessels  and  transported  in  and  by 
the  water  of  the  blood ;  and  as  the  same  would  be  true  of  any  air 
that  is  taken  into  the  blood,  the  amount  of  water  in  the  vessels  will 
determine  to  a  great  degree,  the  amount  of  fuel  or  air  that  will  pass 
through  any  given  point  during  any  given  length  of  time.  Therefore,] 

is  the  fuel  of  the  food  treated  ?  Is  it  probably  treated  in  precisely  the  same  way  as 
nutriment?  What  is  said  of  the  state  of  the  fluids'?  What  fluids  are  used  in  the 
digestive  process  ?  What  is  Illus.  a.  ?  What  is  fllus.  b.  ?  What  is  the  subject  of 
Sec.  C.I  When  does  most  air  pass  into  the  lungs'?  Wliy  is  this?  When  does 
the  air  experience  the  greatest  change?  Why  is  thisl  Which  are  the  warmest 
organs  of  the  body  1  In  which  organs  is  the  air  received?  What  ought  to  be  the 
constitution  of  the  air  ?  When  is  air  necessary  ?  IT  98.  How  may  air  be  useful,  first  ? 
Secondly  ?  H  99.  What  are  admirably  adapted  to  allow  the  action  of  the  air?  Describe 
the  lungs.  What  are  the  subjects  of  the  kidneys  ?  What  will  the  amount  of  water 
in  the  vessels  determine  ?  n  100.  How  do  the  kidneys  indirectly  assist  in  the  produc- 
tion of  heat  ?  What  two  questions  may  now  arise  in  the  mind  1  Can  burning  be  pro- 


82  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Why  heat  produced  in  the  body  does  not  burn  it. 

100.  The  Kidneys  indirectly  assist  in  the  production  of 
heat,  by  removing  water  from  the  system. 

[Two  questions  may  now  arise  in  the  reader's  mind.  1st.  How 
can  burning  take  place  in  the  midst  of  so  much  water  1  2d.  How 
can  burning  take  place  in  the  body  without  burning  the  body  itself? 
It  is  not  usual  to  see  things  burn  freely  under  water,  yet  it  can  be 
seen.  In  the  body  this  burning  takes  place  so  slowly,  and  the  heat 
is  dispersed  so  rapidly,  that  in  health  no  part  becomes  heated  to  an 
improper  degree.  As  the  heat  is  not  allowed  to  become  excessive, 
we  are  not  in  the  habit  of  thinking  the  process  is  the  same  in  prin- 
ciple as  when  the  stove  is  heated.  Perhaps  the  use  of  the  term 
burning  is  not  judicious,  as  the  idea  associated  with  that  word  is, 
that  a  harmful  degree  of  heat  is  produced.  The  technical  term 
which  embraces  all  the  milder,  as  well  as  the  more  intense  degrees  at 
which  heat  is  produced,  is  combustion. 

Illus.  a. — Phosphorus  left  in  the  air  undergoes  combustion  so 
slowly  that  it  seems  to  merely  waste  away,  and  heat  is  developed  so 
gently  that  no  appreciable  degree  of  it  is  at  any  one  time  produced.  But 
the  same  amount  of  heat  is  produced  in  the  course  of  several  days  as 
would  be  in  a  few  minutes,  if  the  combustion  were  rapid.  It  is  the 
accumulation  of  heat,  if  such  an  expression  may  be  used,  which  pro- 
duces the  degree  which  would  be  called  burning. 

Illus.  b. — If  a  person  blow  upon  the  upper  surface  of  a  piece  of 
paper,  the  under  surface  may  be  put  down  upon  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  and  the  paper  will  not  be  scorched  as  long  as  the  breath  con- 
tinues to  sweep  across  it,  as  the  air  carries  the  heat  away  as  fast  as 
it  comes  into  the  paper,  and  the  heat  does  not  accumulate  to  the 
burning  degree. 


CHAPTER   IL 
Distribution  of  Heat. 

101.  Heat  is  distributed  by  means  of,  1st.  The  Heart 
and  Bloodvessels.  2d.  Water.  3d.  The  actions  of  the 
Kidneys. 

duced  under  water  ?  How  does  the  burning  take  place  in  the  body  ?  What  is  a  better 
term  than  burning  1  What  does  combustion  mean  1  What  is  Illus.  a.  ?  What  is 
Mlus.  b.  1  Have  you  tried  the  experiment  1  How  is  heat  distributed  1  Why  are  the 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  83 

Beautiful  arrangement  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels  for  distributing  heat. 

SEC.  A. — Bloodvessels  and  Heart,  in  the  distribution 
of  Heat. 

[Nothing  could  be  better  adapted  to  the  distribution  of  heat 
through  the  system,  than  a  flow  of  fluid  round  and  round  through 
svery  part  of  the  body.  For,  wherever  heat  was  produced,  the  fluid 
would  be  warmed,  and  if  any  part  were  cool,  it  would  be  warmed  by 
the  fluid,  which  would  become  cooled,  to  be  again  warn  ed  when  it 
passed  through  any  warm  part.] 

102.  The  Hearts  and  Bloodvessels,  as  already  described, 
are  perfectly  adapted  to  the  distribution  of  heat. 

SEC.  B. —  Water,  in  the  distribution  of  Heat. 

[The  adaptation  of  water  to  distribute  heat,  is  too  evident  to  need 
comment.  It  is  harmless  in  every  respect,  and  all  that  is  necessary  is, 
that  the  quantity  of  it  and  the  rapidity  of  its  motions,  should  be  regu- 
lated according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case.] 

SEC.  C. — Kidneys,  in  the  distribution  of  Heat. 

103.  The  Kidneys  are  of  use  in  tfo  distribution  of  heat 
by  lessening  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  vessels. 

[On  account  of  this,  the  blood  wrhich  remains  can*  be  hurried 
through  its  circuit  more  rapidly  than  a  larger  quantity  could  be — the 
size  of  the  vessels  being  regulated  to  the  quantity  of  their  contents, 
and  the  Hearts  acting  with  continued  energy.] 


heart  and  bloodvessels  admirably  adapted  to  the  distribution  of  heat?  How  many 
kinds  of  bloodvessels  are  there  ?  What  is  the  name  of  those  leading  out  from  the 
hearts  ?  What  of  those  leading  back  to  the  hearts  ?  What  kind  of  vessels  lead  to  the 
liver?  What  kind  lead  away  from  the  liver?  What  is  the  name  of  those  which 
lead  away  from  any  part  of  the  body  ?  What  is  the  particular  name  'of  those  which 
lead  from  al.l  parts  of  the  body  to  the  hearts  ?  What  is  said  in  IT  102?  What  is  the 
subject  of  Sec.  B.  ?  What  is  said  of  it?  II  103.  How  are  the  kidneys  of  use  in  dis- 
tributing heat  ?  H  104.  How  is  heat  preserved,  first  ?  Secondly  ?  What  are  the  sub- 
jects of  Sec.  A.?  What  is  said  of  a  brick?  What  of  animals?  What  of  man? 


84        ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  clothing  of  man  and  animals. 

CIIAPTEE    III. 

Preservation  of  Heat. 

104.  Heat  is  preserved  in  two  ways  :    1st,   by  External, 
2d,  by  Internal  protections. 

SEC.  A. — External  Protections,  in  tJie  preservation  of  Heat, 

[If  a  hot  brick  be  wrapped  in  flannel,  it  does  not  become  cool  as  it 
would  otherwise.  Most  animals  are  covered  with  hair,  fur,  wool,  &c., 
which  becomes  thicker  as  the  cold  weather  approaches.  Man  has 
been  designed  for  every  variety  of  climate,  and  has  been  gifted  accord- 
ingly with  reason  and  ingenuity,  and  hands,  by  means  of  which  he 
can  make  use  of  the  clothing  of  other  animals  and  such  parts  of  plants 
as  are  adapted  to  his  use.  When  any  warm  thing  is  put  in  the  wind, 
it  becomes  cool  very  quickly ;  hence] 

105.  External  protections  consist  of  clothing  and  shelter. 

SEC.  B. — Internal  Protection,  in  pi-eserving  Heat. 

[Those  animals  which  are  not  furnished  with  external  protections, 
which  live  in  cold  climates,  and  are  warm-blooded,  are  furnished 
with  a  thick  layer  of  fat.] 

Illus.— The  Hog— the  Whale,  &c. 

[Those  animals  which  live  in  very  cold  climates,  have  a  thick  layer 
of  fat  in  addition  to  any  external  protection.] 

Illus—  The  White  Bear. 

[In  case  of  man  and  animals,  the  layer  of  fat  beneath  the  skin  is 
increased  as  cold  weather  approaches,  especially  in  cases  where  the 
animals  "  hybernate,"  that  is,  remain  quiet  and  in  a  condition  as  of 
sleep,  during  the  winter.] 

Illus.— Certain  kinds  of  squirrels— bears.  &c. 

U  105.  What  are  external  protections!  What  are  the  subjects  of  Sec.  B.  1  What  is 
said  of  animals  1  What  is  the  ILlus.  ?  Can  you  mention  any  other  animals  ?  What 
is  said  of  animals  living  in  very  cold  climates'?  What  is  the  Illus.  1  Can  you  give 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  85 

How  animals  should  be  kept  profitably. 

[In  case  of  those  animals  that  do  not  produce  for  themselves  fat 
beneath  the  skin,  cold  weather  is  apt  to  destroy  life.] 

Illus.— The  Tiger— Hyena. 

[The  fat  of  the  system  is  produced  by  the  same  kinds  of  food  as  is 
necessary  for  the  production  of  heat.] 

[Less  food  is  required  to  keep  fat  animals  warm,  than  is  necessary 
for  lean  ones.] 

Inf.  a. — It  must  be  more  profitable  to  keej  animals  fat  through  the 
winter,  than  to  allow  them  to  become  lean. 

Inf.  b. — It  does  not  follow,  because  a  person  is  very  fat,  that  he  is  a 
great  eater — but  rather  the  reverse. 

[Fat  is  most  plentiful  at  those  periods  of  life  when  the  system  is 
least  able  to  produce  heat,  and  therefore  requires  to  have  what  heat 
is  produced  most  carefully  preserved.] 

Illus. — In  infancy  and  old  age,  fat  is  most  abundant. 

[From  all  these  facts,  it  is  well  proved  that] 

106.  Fat  is  an  internal  protection  against  the  loss  of 
heat. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life. 

107.  The  increased  and  diminished  action,  which  would 
at  various  times  be  required  in  the  production,  distribution, 
and  preservation  of  heat,  would  render  it  necessary,  that  the 
organs  concerned  therein,  should  be  placed  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life. 

Concluding  Remarks  on  keeping  the  body  Warm. 
[There  would  seem  to  be  u  necessity, that  a  stock  of  fuel  should  be 

any  other'}  What  protection  has  the  horse  ?  When  is  fat  increased?  What  is  the 
Illus.  ?  Can  you  mention  any  other  ?  What  is  true  of  animals  not  having  fat  beneath 
the  skin  1  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  Can  you  give  another  1  What  animals  require  most 
food  1  What  is  Inf.  a.  ?  What  is  Inf.  b.  ?  When  is  fat  most  plentiful  1  What  is 


86        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Fat,  marrow,  etc.,  a  portable  stock  of  fuel.    Review. 

kept  on  hand  during  the  cold  weather  at  least ;  for  as  we  live  in  the 
air,  it  is  constantly  acting  on  the  fuel  of  the  blood,  which  is  not  so 
large  in  quantity  as  to  last  a  great  while  if  its  sources  be  cut  off,  as 
they  would  be  if  a  person  kept  himself  quiet  and  could  not  obtain  food. 
If  on  the  other  hand,  we  examine  the  body,  we  find  in  it  quite  a  quan- 
tity of  fat  besides  that  which  is  directly  beneath  the  skin.  This  is 
increased  especially  in  certain  animals,  when  the  cold  weather  comes 
on.  As  the  cold  weather  progresses,  the  fat  is  gradually  exhausted.] 
Illus. — The  squirrels  come  out  lean  in  the  spring  of  the  year — 
therefore, 

108.  The  fat  within   the  system    serves  as  a  portable 
stock  or  store  of  fuel — it  also  serves  as  a  cushion  to  some 
parts. 

Review. 

109.  To  kecj)  the  body  warm,  Heat  must  be  Produced, 
Distributed,  and  Preserved,  and  the   System  must  receive 
Food,  Air,  and  Water. 

110.  Digestive.  Organs  will  be  necessary  to  prepare  the 
fuel  portion  of  the  food  for  use. 

[The  digestive  organs  include  the  mouth,  stomach,  second  stomach, 
pancreas,  and  liver.] 

111.  Respiratory  Organs  are  necessary  to  cause  the  air 
to  act  on  the  blood. 

[The  respiratory  organs  include  the  lungs  and  those  parts  which 
inspire  and  expire  the  air.] 

112.  The  Circulatory  Organs  are  required  to  distribute 
the  heat  and  fuel  of  the  body. 

[The  circulatory  organs  include  the  right  and  left  Hearts,  the 

the  Ittus.  ?  What  is  fat?  What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  IV.  7  IT  107.  Why  is  it  neces- 
sary? Why  is  a  stock  of  fuel  necessary?  What  is  found  on  examining  the  body? 
What  is  the  Illus.  1  Can  you  give  any  other  ?  Is  man  thinner  in  spring  or  winter  1 
What  is  said  of  fat  in  H  108?  Is  the  time  when  fat  is  needed  as  a  protection  the  same 
as  when  needed  as  a  stock?  What  is  said  in  H  109  ?  What  in  if  110?  What  in  mil? 
What  in  IT  112?  WhatinHllS?  WhatinU114?  What  in  IT  1151  WhatinflllG? 
What  in  1F  117? 


HYGIENE   AND    THERAPEUTICS.  87 

Exercise  one  of  the  best  ways  of  warming  the  system. 

Systemic  and  Pulmonary  Arteries,  the  Systemic  and  Pulmonary  Veins, 
and  the  Capillaries.] 

113.  The  Kidneys  will  be  required  to  remove  any  super- 
abundant quantity  of  water. 

114.  Exercise  will  be  advantageous  by  directly  produc- 
ing heat,  and  also  by  furnishing  fuel  to  the  blood. 

[It  is  one  of  the  very  best  ways  of  warming  the  system.} 

115.  The  action  of  the  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life 
is  imperatively  required  to  regulate  the  increased  and  dimi- 
nished action  of  the  organs  concerned  in  maintaining  the 
heat  of  the  system. 

116.  Fat  and  Clothing  will  be  required  to  preserve  heat 

117.  Fat  will  be  required  as  a  store  of  fuel. 


BOOK  IV. 

FOURTH  GRAND  DUTY TO  COOL  THE  BODY. 

118.  To  keep  the  body  cool,  two  things  are  necessary. 
1  st.  To  prevent  heat  from  being  produced.  2d.  To  cool  the 
body  directly. 


CHAPTER   I. 
Production  of  Heat  prevented. 

119.  Production  of  heat  is  prevented,  1st.  By  not  taking 
exercise.    2d.  By  diminishing  the  quantity  of  food,    3d.  By 
diminished  action  of  the  air.     4th.  By  reception  of  Water. 
5th.  By  the  action  of  the  Liver. 

SEC.  A. — Effect  of  not  exercising. 

120.  By  keeping  the  system  quiet,  heat  is  not  directly 
produced  nor  is  fuel  furnished. 

Inf. — Labor  should  not  be  as  active  in  warm  weather  or  in  warm 
climates  as  in  cooler  ones. 

[Nor  is  it  necessary,  as  in  cold  climates,  that  a  great  deal  of  labor 
must  be  performed  to  obtain  the  required  fuel  to  keep  the  body 
warm.] 

What  is  the  subject  of  Book  IV  ?  TT  118.  What  are  necessary  to  keep  the  body  cool  ? 
U  119.  How  is  the  production  of  heat  prevented?  H  120.  How  does  quiet  prevent  the 
production  of  heat?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  Where  must  most  labor  be  performed? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  89 


A  large  quantity  of  drink  prevents  the  production  of  heat. 


SEC.  B. — The  effect  of  not  taking  food. 

[That  diminishing  food  will  prevent  the  production  of  heat,  will 
be  evident  from  what  has  already  been  said.] 

Inf. — There  should  not  be  as  hearty  an  appetite  in  warm  weather 
or  climates  as  in  cold. 


SEC.  C. — Tfo  diminished  action  of  the  Air. 

[As  we  live  in  the  air,  and  as  it  is  constantly  necessary  that  air 
should  be  received  into  the  lungs,  on  account  of  excretion,  thg  action 
of  the  air  in  the  production  of  heat  can  only  be  diminished  but  never 
entirely  set  aside.  The  air  is  fortunately  so  constituted,  that  its 
action,  in  respect  to  the  production  of  heat,  is  most  perfectly  regulat- 
ed by  the  amount  of  heat  which  circumstances  make  it  necessary 
should  be  produced.] 

SEC.  D. —  Water  j  in  preventing  the  production  of  Heat. 

121.  The  reception  of  water  rj^events  the  production  of 
}ieat,  by  diluting  the  blood,  and  causing  the  fuel  or  air  it 
contains,  to  be  a  longer  time  than  otherwise  in  passing  any 
part  or  place  where  heat  is  produced. 

Inf. — It  cannot  be  wise  to  drink  a  large  quantity  of  tea,  coffee,  or 
any  drink  to  warm  the  system,  when  it  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  cold.] 

[True,  any  warm  fluid  adds  its  own  heat  to  the  system,  but  the 
question  is,  does  it  add  as  much  as  it  prevents  from  being  produced  ?] 


CHAPTER    II. 

Cooling  tlie  System. 

[It  might  be  thought  that  the  temperature  of  the  body  might  be 
prevented  from  rising  above  a  healthful  degree,  by  preventing  the 


90        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Diminishing  clothing  and  producing  evaporation  cools  the  body. 

production  of  heat.  But  an  examination  of  the  subject  shows,  that 
the  action  of  the  system,  necessary  in  its  most  quiet  state,  will  pro- 
duce more  heat  than  is  congenial  to  the  health  of  the  system  in  warm 
weather,  and  more  than  can  be  carried  away  by  radiation  merely. 
Some  additional  means  are  therefore  required  by  the  system  to  pro- 
duce the  removal  of  heat.] 

122.   The.  body  is  directly  cooled,  1st.  .By  removing  the 
protections  that  preserve  heat.     2d.  By  Evaporation. 


SEC.  A. — Removing  Protections. 

123.  The  thickness  of  tlie  clothing  and  the  quantity  of 
fat  being  diminished,  the  body  is  more  or  less  rapidly 
cooled. 

SEC.  B. — Evaporation. 

[Evaporation  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  means  that  can  be  used 
for  cooling  any  thing.] 

Elus.  a. — Water  is  sprinkled  upon  the  floor  in  a  warm  day,  that  by 
evaporating  it  may  cool  a  room. 

Illus.  b. — In  warm  climates  people  sometimes  wrap  bottles  of  drink 
in  wet  cloths,  and  expose  them,  that  the  rapid  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  cloths,  may  cool  the  contents. 

[As  the  heat  to  be  removed  from  the  system  varies  at  different 
times,  it  would  be  important  that  it  possess  some  organ  by  which  the 
process  of  evaporation  could  be  increased  or  diminished,  as  the  case 
required.  This  organ  must  also  be  situated  at  the  surface  of  the 


When  does  a  person  feel  most,  like  exercising?  When  should  the  most  hearty  appe- 
tite exist  1  Is  it  so?  Why?  How  is  the  air  constituted?  if  121.  What  is  the  use  of 
water?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  II.  ?  Can  the  system  ever 
be  in  a  perfectly  quiet  state  ?  Is  the  system  active  during  sleep  1  What  is  the  effect 
of  action  in  the  most  quiet  state  that  can  be  produced  ?  li  122.  How  is  the  body  directly 
cooled?  What  is  said  in  H  123  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  Sec.  B.  ?  What  does  evapo- 
ration mean?  What  is  one  of  the  results  of  evaporation?  What  is  Illus.  a.  ?  What 
is  Illus.  b.  ?  Can  you  give  any  others  ?  Which  morning  will  be  the  cooler,  all  other 
things  being  equal,  when  there  is  much  or  little  dew  to  evaporate?  When  should 
evaporation  from  the  body  be  greatest  ?  From  what  parts  should  it  be  greatest?  What 
organ  would  therefore  be  necessary?  Where  should  it  be  placed?  Why  would  a 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.  91 

How  the  skin  causes  evaporation.    How  water  is  received. 

"body.    As  rapidly  as  water  was  evaporated  from  this  organ,  it  would 
also  be  important  to  have  it  receive  a  fresh  supply.] 

124.  The  skin  covering  the  body  and  lining   the  lungs 
causes  evaporation  to  take  place,  by  removing  from  the  blood 
a  portion  of  its  water,  and  causing  it  to  ooze  out  in  small 
drops  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin,  from  whence  it  evaporates 
directly,  in  case  of  the  external  skin,  while  k  is  expelled  from 
the  lungs  with  the  expired  air. 

125.  To  enable  the  skin  to  perform  its  duty,t\iQ  system 
must  be  supplied  with  water. 

[As  the  water  unchanged  is  to  ooze  out  through  the  skin,  it  needs 
no  preparation.  It  is  only  necessary  that  it  be  introduced  into  the 
bloodvessels  in  any  possible  way.  It  is  usually  introduced  by  being 
swallowed  into  the  stomach ;  but  if  the  air  be  moist,  and  the  system 
require  water,  it  will  pass  into  the  bloodvessels  through  the  lungs,  or 
even  through  the  skin.] 


CHAPTER   m. 

Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life. 

126.  The  increased  and  diminished  action,  which  would 
be  required  of  the  organs  engaged  in  cooling  the  system,  ren- 
ders it  necessary  that  they  should  be  placed  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life.  • 

Concluding  Remarks  on  keeping  the  System  Cool. 

127.  The  active  cooling  of  the  system,  renders  necessary 
the  hearts  and  bloodvessels. 

supply  of  water  to  the  system  be  necessary  1  H  124.  How  does  the  skin  cause  evapo- 
ration 1  ^  125.  What  must  be  supplied  to'  the  system"?  Does  the  water  require  any 
preparation  1  Why  not  ?  Into  what  must  it  be  introduced  7  How  is  it  usually  intro- 
duced 1  How  may  it  be  introduced  1  What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  III.  ?  U  126.  Why 


92  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Use  of  food,  air,  and  water. 

[That  heat  may,  by  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  be  removed  from 
the  internal  organs  to  the  surface ;  and.  in  the  next  place,  that  water 
may  be  supplied  to  the  skin  as  the  exigencies  of  the  case  require.] 

128.  The  skin  is  necessary ,  to  remove  water  from  the 
blood  to  its  surface. 

1 29.  The  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life  is  required  to 
increase  the  action  of  those  organs  by  which  heat  is  removed; 
to  diminish  the  action,  as  far  as  circumstances  will  permit, 
of  those  by  which  heat  is  produced ;  and  to  increase  the  action 
of  the  liver,  by  which  the  fuel  of  the  blood  is  removed. 


REVIEW  OF  DIVISION  II. 

[We  rtay  now  review  and  present  at  once  before  our  minds  the 
uses  of  food,  air,  and  water,  and  reconsider  what  organs  are  necessary 
to  apply  them  to  their  uses.] 

1 30.  The  welfare  of  the  system  requires  that  four  duties 
be  fulfilled:    1st.  Excretion.     2d.  Nutrition.     3d.   Heating. 
4th.  Cooling. 

131.  Food  is  useful  as  nutriment  and  fuel. 

132.  Air  is  useful  in  excretion,  heating,  (and  perhaps  in 
causing  those  changes  which  are  connected  with  the  action 
of  the  system,)  and  in  cooling. 

133.  Water  is  useful  as  a  vehicle  to  receive  and  transport 
from  one  place  to  another,  any  substance  to  be  excreted,  to 
nourish,  or  to  heat  the  system.     It  distributes  heat,  and  thus 
warms  some  and  cools  other  organs.     By  its   presence  it 
dilutes  the  nourishment,  and  renders  the  nourishment  of  the 

is  it  necessary  ?  IT  127.  What  does  the  active  cooling  of  the  system  render  necessary  1 
Why?  II  128.  Why  is  the  skin  necessary  1  if  1'29.  Why  is  the  organic  nervous  system 
necessary?  if  130.  What  does  the  welfare  of  the  system  require?  it  131.  How  is  food 
useful  ?  IF  132.  How  is  air  useful  ?  if  133.  How  is  water  useful  ?  If  134.  What  classes 
of  organs  are  necessary  to  make  use  of  the  food,  air,  and  water  1  if  135.  How  many 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.  93 

The  uses  of  water  in  the  system. 

system  more  slow ;  while  by  its  removal  the  nourishment  is 
furnished  to  the  system  more  rapidly.  By  its  presence  it 
prevents  the  production  of  heat,  by  diluting  the  fuel  of  the 
blood.  By  its  removal  it  increases  the  rapidity  with  which 
heat  is  produced,  and  also  with  which  it  is  distributed.  If 
perspired,  it  by  evaporation  cools  the  body,  as  it  does  also 
by  application  either  as  a  bath,  or  in  the  form  of  "  damp  cold 
air."  By  its  removal  it  also  increases  the  rapidity  with 
which  excretion  is  produced. 

134.  Pive  classes  of  organs  are  necessary  to  make  use  of 
the  food,  air,  and  water.     1st.  The  Excreting.  2d.  The  Diges- 
tive.   3d.  The  Respiratory.    4th.  The  Circulatory.    5th.  The 
Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life. 

135.  The  Excreting  Organs  are  of  five  classes:   1st.  The 
Lungs.    2d.  The  Kidneys.    3d.   The  Skin.    4th.  The  Liver. 
5th.  The  Second  Stomach  and  Colon. 

136.  The  Digestive  Organs  are,  1st.  The  Mouth.  2d.  The 
Stomach.     3d.  The  Second  Stomach,  Liver,  and  Pancreas. 
4th.  The  Lacteals. 

137.  Tlie  Respiratory.  Organs  consist  of  the  Lungs,  and 
apparatus  which  inspires  and  expels  the  air  from  them. 

138.  The  Circulatory  Organs  are   the   right   and  left 
Heart,  the  Arteries,  Veins,  and  Capillaries. 

139.  Tfie  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life  is  indefinitely 
known. 

[The  uses  of  each  organ,  and  the  necessity  for  its  existence,  will 
be  more  strongly  impressed  if  they  be  now  classed  according  to  their 
use  in  fulfilling  the  grand  duties  of  the  system.] 

140    In  the  process  of  Excretion  there  are  required,  the 
Lungs,  the  Kidneys,  the  Skin,  the  Liver,  the  Second  Sto- 

and  what  classes  of  organs  compose  the  excreting  organs?  H  136.  How  many  and 
what  organs  compose  the  digestive  organs?  II  137. "Of  what  organs  do  the  respiratory 
apparatus  consist  ?  IT  138.  What  are  the  circulatory  organs?  if  140.  What  organs  are 


94 

The  number  of  duties  each  organ  fulfils. 

mach    and  Colon,    the    Hearts   and  Bloodvessels,    and    the 
Nervous  System. 

141.  In  the  process  of  Nutrition  there  are  required,  the 
Mouth,  Stomach,  Second  Stomach,  Liver  and  Pancreas,  the 
Lacteals,  the    Kidneys,   the  Hearts  and  Bloodvessels,  the 
Nervous  System. 

142.  In  the  process  of  keeping  the  system  warm  there 
are  required,    the   Mouth,    the    Stomach,  the    Second   Sto- 
mach, Liver  and  Pancreas,  the    Lacteals,   the   Lungs,   the 
Kidneys,  the  Hearts  and  Bloodvessels,  the  Nervous  System. 

143.  In  the  process  of  cooling,  there  are  required  the 
Skin,  the  Lungs,  the  Liver,  the  Bloodvessels,  the  Nervous 
System. 

[The  duty  of  the  Lungs  is  therefore  three-fold.  t 

The  duty  of  the  Kidneys  is  also  three-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Skin  is  two-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Liver  is  four-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Second  Stomach  is  three-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Mouth  is  two-fold.  >&• 

The  duty  of  the  Stomach  is  two-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Lacteals  is  two-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Hearts  and  Bloodvessels  is  four-fold. 

The  duty  of  the  Nervous  System  is  four-fold.] 
[The  duties  just  mentioned  have  reference  merely  to  the  action  of 
each  organ  in  respect  to  the  four  grand  duties  of  these  organs.  Some 
of  them  have  other  duties  to  fulfil  hereafter  to  be  mentioned.  There 
are  also  some  parts  which  have  not  yet  been  mentioned,  the  use  of 
which  is  not  known,  which  will  be  spoken  of  in  the  Second  Part  of 
the  work]. 

required  in  the  process  of  excretion!  If  141.  What  organs  are  required  in  the  process 
of  digestion  ?  if  142.  What  organs  are  required  in  the  process  of  keeping  the  system 
warm  ?  if  143.  What  organs  are  required  in  the  process  of  cooling  the  system  1  How 
many  duties  have  the  lungs?  What  are  they?  How  many  duties  have  the  kidneys'? 
What  are  they ?  How  many  duties  has  the  skin?  What  arc  they?  How  many 
duties  has  the'  liver  ?  What  are  they  ?  How  many  duties  has  the  second  stomach  ? 
What  are  they?  How  many  duties  has  the  mouth?  What  are  they?  How  many 
duties  has  the  stomach  ?  What  are  they  ?  How  many  duties  have  the  lacteals  ?  What 
are  they  ?  How  many  duties  have  the  hearts  and  bloodvessels  1  What  are  they  ? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  95 

The  first  and  second  class  of  organs  powerfully  influence  each  other. 

144.  All  the  organs  engaged  in  excretion,  nutrition,  and 
in  heating  and  cooling  the  system,  may  very  properly  be 
'combined  into  one  class,  and  called  the  Second  Class  of  Or- 
gans. 

[They  are  frequently  termed  the  organs  of  organic  or  vegetative 
life.] 

[It  is  now  worthy  of  notice,  that  as  the  First  Class  is  dependent  on 
the  Second  for  nourishment,  &c.,  so  also  the  Second  C*ass  is  depend- 
ent on  the  First  for  supplies  of  food,  clothing,  water,  &c.  Hence  they 
are  most  intimately  connected  fby  means  of  their  nervous  systems, 
and  every  state  of  either  has  an  effect  upon  the  other  ;\  the  mind 
also  is  so  connected  with  the  body,  that  every  state  of  the  mind  aifects 
more  or  less  immediately  all  parts  of  the  system,  and  the  fulfilment 
of  every  duty  of  the  Second  Class  of  organs,  while  every  state  of 
those  produces  an  effect  on  the  mind.  A  person  cannot  then  expect 
good  digestion  when  his  temper  is  morose,  and  on  the  other  hand,  in- 
digestion will  tend  to  produce  a  bad  state  of  mind.] 

[One  fact  more  is  here  worthy  of  notice,  viz.,  all  parts  of  the  body 
increase  in  size  from  the  earliest  periods  of  their  life  to  mature  years. 
For  the  accomplishment  of  this  it  is  evident  that  such  substance  as 
the  body  is  composed  of  will  be  required,  viz. <,  the  same  substance  as 
is  necessary  in  the  repairing  process.  It  must  be  prepared,  and  in 
all  respects  treated  in  the  same  manner.] 

145.  The  nourishment  of  the  body  previous  to  maturity 
is  for  two  purposes;   1st.  Its  growth.  2d.  Its  repair. 

[After  this  general  view  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  their 
uses  and  requirements,  we  may  pass  over  each  part  more  in  detail, 
having  now  a  sufficiently  clear  idea  of  what  the  system  and  its  vari- 
ous parts  are  for,  to  be  able  with  a  watchful  eye  to  detect  what  ought 
and  what  ought  not  to  be  done  to  obtain  and  preserve  for  the  longest 
period  of  time,  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  health  and  power  of 
mind  and  body.) 

How  many  duties  has  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life?  What  are  (hey?  if  144. 
What  organs  may  ^e  brought  into  one  class  1  \Vhat  may  it  be  called  ?  What  are  the 
organs  composing  Tt  frequently  called?  What  is  now  worthy  of  notice?  How  are 
the  two  classes  of  organs  in  the  body  connected?  What  cannot  a  person  expect? 
What  fact  is  worthy  of  notice  ?  What  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  system  ? 
V  145.  For  what  is  the  nourishment  of  the  body  previous  to  mature  years?  What  do 
you  suppose  causes  the  body  to  grow  for  a  series  of  .years,  and  then  cease  to  do  so  ? 
What  now  are  we  prepared  to  do  1 


PART   II. 

PARTICULAR   DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   SYSTEM. 

DIVISION     I. 

FIRST  CLASS  OF   ORGANS. 


BOOK  I. 

ORGANS    OP    VOLUNTARY    MOTION. 

CHAPTER    I. 

The  Framework  of  the  System. 

146.  Tlie  Skeleton  is  the  technical  name  of  the  Frame- 
work of  the  System.     It  is  composec^of  Bones,  Cartilages, 
and  Ligaments.     Its  duty  is,  to  give  form  to  the  body,  to 
support  the  soft  parts  in  their  proper  positions,  to  protect 
certain  parts  from  injury,  and  by  means  of  joints,  to  allow 
the  required  motions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Inf.— Perfection  of  form,  and  the  greatest  strength  of  the  system, 
cannot  exist  without  the  bones,  cartilages,  and  ligaments  are  perfect.^ 

SEC.  A.— The  Bones. 

147.  The  Bones  are  composed  of  two  classes  of  sub- 

H  146.  What  is  the  skeleton?    Of  what  is  it  composed?    What  its  duty?    What 
is  the  Inf.  1    if  147.  Of  what  are  the  bones  composed  1    H  148.  How  may  the  hard  sub- 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  97 

The  bones  an  exquisite  piece  of  masonry. 

stances.     1st.  A  hard,  earthy,  chalky,  or  mineral  class.     2d. 
The  soft,  animal,  or  cartilaginous  portion. 

[In  fact,  many  different  simple  elements  are  found  in  the  bones, 
but,  for  practical  purposes,  they  may  all  be  included  in  two  classes.] 

148.  The  Hard  portion  may  be  obtained  by  placing  a 
bone  in  the  fire.      It  will  burn  out  the  soft  part)    That 
which  is  left,  will  have  the  same  form  and  will  be  nearly  as 
large  as  the  entire  bone ;  but  will  not  be  as  heavy,  and  will 
be  very  brittle,  indeed,  will  crumble  between  the  fingers  like 
chalk*      I   U/HV^x 

149.  Tfie  Soft  or  Animal  portion  of  bone  is  obtained  by 
placing  a  bone  in  diluted  muriatic  acid  (as  the  best  thing). 
This  will  "eat  out"  the  earthy  portion,  leaving  the  soft  part 
untouched.     This  will  present  the  same  form  and  nearly  the 
same  size  as  the  entire  bone,  but  will  not  be  as  heavy,  and  is 
so  flexible  or  easily  bent,  that,  if  a  long  bone,  it  may  be  tied 

in  a  knot. 
J 

Fig.  19. 


*  Let  the  student  try  the  experiment  of  subjecting  a  bone  to  the  action  of  heat. 


stance  be  obtained  .'    Have  you  tried  the  experiment  mentioned  1    IT  149.  How  can  you 
obtain  the  soft  substance  1    Describe  Fig.  17.    What  is  the  Inf.  1    H  150.  When  does 


98  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Injurious  to  try  to  teach  a  child  to  walk.    Milk  the  only  proper  food. 

Inf.— The  hard  and  soft  parts  having  the  same  form  and  size  as 
the  entire  bone,  they  must  be  very  intimately  blended  throughout  the 
entire  bone. 

150.  The  proportions  of  the  hard  and  soft  parts  differ 
very  much  at  different  periods  of  life.     In  early  years  the 
soft,  in  old  age  the  hard,  predominates.     Indeed  when  the 
person  is  very  young,  the  place  of  the  bone  is  entirely  occu- 
pied by  soft  substance.     Some  of  the  hard  substance  is  first 
deposited,  then  more,  and  so  on,  till  at  a  certain  period  there 
will  be  so  much  firmness  of  the  bones  that  they  will  not  bend 
by  their  own  weight,  and  in   a  little  longer  time,  they  will 
bear  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Inf.  a. — Itf  a  child  be  placed  Upon  its  feet  too  early,  deformity  will  be 
the  result.  So  also,  carrying  a  child,  or  frequently  placing  it  in  any 
position  for  a  long  time  together,  will  tend  to  bend  the  bones.  Stand- 
ing stools,  and  the  like,  must  be  injurious^* 

Inf.  b.—As  the  bones  receive  their  strength  by  the  addition  of  hard 
substance  to  the  soft,  it  follows,  that  only  such  food  as  contains  the 
constituents  of  the  bones  should  be  eaten,  especially  in  infancy. 

[The  Creator  has  prepared  for  this — and  if(milk\  be  used,,  a  person 
must  be  sure  of  being  right.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  those  things 
fed  to  children  instead  of  milk,  cannot  assist  in  forming  the  bones, 
and  doubly  injure  the  child  in  some  cases— for  they  fatten  the  child 
and  make  it  heavy,  while  the  bones  are  not  strengthened  to  bear  the 
weight.] 

151.  In  texture,  the  bones  are  quite  solid  for  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  surface,  they  then  begin  to  be  more  loose, 
what  is  called  cancellated,  as  seen  in 

*  It  is  not  probable  that  a  child  can  be  taught  to  walk  one  day  earlier  than  nature 
intends ;  but  as  soon  as  the  child  is  strong  enough  it  will  walk  instinctively,  and  with- 
out any  teaching,  the  same  as  an  animal  does.  The  chicken  just  hatched  from  its  shell 
walks  because  it  is  large  and  strong  enough  to  do  so.  No  matter  how  much  trouble  it 
may  make,  it  is  better  to  have  a  child  roll  about  and  creep  as  long  as  it  chooses,  and 
walk  when  unerring  nature  teaches  it  to  do  so. 

the  soft  part  predominate ?  How  is  the  bone  formed'?  What  is  Inf.  a.  7  Ought  a 
little  child  to  sleep  all  night  in  one  position  1  If  the  child  be  too  young  to  turn  itself, 
what  should  be  done?  What  is  the  substance  of  the  foot  note?  What  is  Inf.  b.1 
What  food  has  the  Creator  prepared 'I  Ought  milk  alone  to  be  used  by  children  1  How 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  99 


Cells  in  bones.    Fever  sore.    Felon. 


FIG.  20. 


[That  is,  the  bone  begins  to  appear  in  the  form  of  thin  plates,  in- 
tersecting each  other  so  as  to  form  cells,  something  like  honey-comb, 
only  a  hundred  times  smaller.  The  cells  increase  in  size  as  the  bone 
is  pierced  more  deeply,  till  the  centre  of  many  of  the  bones  is  found 
to  be  hollow.  This  arrangement  does  not  materially  take  from  the 
strength  of  the  bones,  while  it  makes  them  essentialty  lighter,  and 
prevents  the  effects  of  jars.] 

152.  The  bones  differ  very  much  from  each   other   in 
form,  size,  and  relative  strength,  according  to  the  situation 
they  occupy  and  what  will  be  required  of  them. 

153.  All  the  bones  are  covered  with  a  very  thin,  strong 
skin  or  membrane,  called  the  Periosteum  (about  bone).      A 
similar  part  also  lines  the  inside  of  the  bones. 

[This  membrane  is  sometimes  subject  to  a  disease  which  if  it  exist 
on  the  long  bones  is  called  fever-sore,  while  if  it  be  on  one  of  the 
small  bones  of  the  finger,  it  is  called  a  felon.  It  is  usually  difficult  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  these  complaints,  but  the  mode  of  treatment  is 
very  certain  as  soon  as  they  are  known  to  exist.  The  part  should  be 
cut  open  down  to  the  bone ;  it  abbreviates  pain,  hastens  a  cure,  is 
perfectly  safe  and  judicious.  If  a  person  will  not  have  this  done,  cold 
applications  should  be  continuously  made  for  a  long  time.  It  might 
be  asked — how  shall  this  disease  be  known  1  By  the  deep,  throbbing, 
continuous  ache,  great  tenderness  to  the  touch — while  the  disease 

does  other  food  injure  sometimes?  1T 151.  What  is  the  texture  of  a  bone  near  its  sur- 
face? How  is  it  inside?  How  can  you  knoic  how  this  is?  Describe  Fig.  18.  How 
is  the  centre  of  some  of  the  bones?  Will  you  lay  open  a  bone  or  two  of  different 
kinds,  and  present  and  describe  them  at.  the  next  recitation  ?  II  152.  How  do  the  bones 
differ  ?  TT  153.  With  what  are  the  bones  covered  ?  Where  is  the  disease  "  fever  sore" 
situated?  Where  a  "  felon  ?"  How  should  either  be  treated?  What  is  the  effect? 
If  a  person  will  not  submit  to  this,  what  may  be  done  ?  How  may  the  disease  ba 


100       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Care  necessary  in  case  of  broken  bones. 


does  not  affect  the  joints,  and  is  local.  It  is  apt  to  be  mistaken  for 
rheumatism.  It  must  be  taken  in  hand  early,  and  treated  very 
promptly.] 

154.  The,  bones  are  supplied  with  bloodvessels,  but  not 
as  numerously  as  some  of  the  softer  portions. 

Inf.— If  the  bones  be  injured  or  diseased,  the  changes  necessary  for 
their  repair  will  not  take  place  as  rapidly  as  in  some  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  the  bones  will  be  a  long  time,  in  some  cases,  in  recovering. 

[Many  times,  persons  feeling  well  in  other  respects,  and  being 
wearied  by  the  restraint,  throw  aside  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  sup- 
'  ports  which  have  been  put  about  the  limb,  or  endeavor  to  use  it  be- 
fore they  ought,  and  thus  produce  a  deformity  which  might  be  avoided 
by  greater  care.  The  older  the  person,  the  longer  the  time  required, 
as  a  general  thing,  for  the  restoration  of  the  bones.  In  many  cases,  if 
the  bones  of  an  old  person  be  broken,  they  will  not  unite.] 

155.  The  bones  increase  in  size  and  strength  to  a  certain 
extent,  when  a  person  gradually  demands  more  and  more  of 
them.     Proper  exercise  therefore  benefits  the  bones. 


SEC.  B. — The   Cartilages. 

156.  Cartilage  is  frequently  called  gristle  ;  it  is  not  as 
solid  or  unyielding  as  bone — indeed  its  most  important  qua- 
lity is  its  elasticity. 

[That  is  to  say,  when  pressed  upon,  it  yields,  and  immediately  re- 
turns to  its  former  condition  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  The  de- 
gree, however,  of  this  elasticity,  differs  in  different  cartilages;  it 
is  sufficiently  exact  for  this  work  to  say,  that] 

157.  The  different  cartilages  may  be  arranged  in  three 
classes.     1st.  Those  covering  the  ends  of  the  bones  at  the 
joints,  generally.     2d.    Those  found  between  the  bones  of 

known?  What  is  it  frequently  thought  to  be?  H  154.  Repeat  IT  154.  What  is  the 
Inf.  ?  How  are  persons  apt  to  do  ?  What  is  said  of  an  old  person's  bones  1  H  155. 
Do  the  bones  increase  ?  How  can  more  and  more  be  demanded  of  them  1  What  is  the 
subject  of  Sec.  II.  1  if  156.  What  is  cartilage?  What  is  meant  by  its  elasticity? 
Can  you  give  an  illustration  ?  IF  157.  In  how  many  classes  may  the  cartilages  be  ar- 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTIC/  ''>  ' 


Beautiful  arrangement  of  one  class  of  cartilages. 


the  back.     3d.  Those  which  are  not  found  between  joints, 
properly  speaking. 

[The  first  class  may  be  dismissed  with  a  brief  notice.  They  are 
quite  dense,  yet  yield  a  little  to  forcible  pressure  ;  they  make  a  very 
perfect  joint  on  account  of  their  smoothness  also,  and,  by  their 
peculiar  arrangement,  they  strengthen  the  joints  greatly,  they  being 
thick  in  the  centre  and  thin  at  the  sides  where  they  cover  the  ball, 
while  at  the  opposite  part  of  the  joint  they  are  thin  in  the  centre  and 
thick  at  the  sides  as  seen  in] 

Fig.  21. 


Fis.  19. — D,  Body  of  a  bone,  at  the  end  of  which  a  socket  is  found.  C,  Cartilage, 
thick  at  the  sides,  and  thin  in  the  centre.  B,  Body  of  a  bone,  at  the  end  of  which  a 
round  head  is  found.  A,  Cartilage,  thin  at  the  sides,  and  thick  in  the  centre. 

158.  The  Second  Class  are  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  framework  in  regard  to  its  form. 

[They  must,  therefore,  be  very  carefully  examined.  To  understand 
their  use  we  must  also  examine  the  bones  of  the  back,  their  relations, 
motions,  &c.] 

159.  The  Backbone  (spinal  column),  as  it  is  called,  is 
composed  of  24  different  bones  called  Ve'rtebrse  (a  single 
one  Vertebra).     The  lower  is  based  upon  and  supported  by 
a  bone  called  the  Sacrum  (Sacred,  from  the  tradition  that  it 
was  the  part  offered  in  sacrifice  by  some  of  the  Ancients). 
See  Fig's  22,  23,  24,  and  25. 

ranged'?  What  is  the  first?  Second?  Third?  What  is  said  of  the  first  class?  Is 
any  part  of  {lie  body  really  worthy  of  a  short  notice  ?  Describe  Fig.  19.  fl  158.  What 
is  paid  of  the  second  class?  To  understand,  them,  what  must  be  considered? 
IS  159,  Describe  the  backbone.  Of  what  are  each  vertebra  composed?  Describe 
Fig.  22.  Fig.  23.  Fig.  24.  What  is  a  process  ?  Describe  Fig.  25.  Describe  Fig.  26. 


PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  22.— Backbone,  spinal  column,  vertebral  column,  bed,  Bodies  of  verte- 
bra?;  the  projections  on  the  opposite  side  are  called  spinous  processes;  above  b  they 
incline  down  but  little  ;  between  b  and  c  they  incline  very  much  ;  between  c  ami  (f, 
but  little,  if  any.  Spaces  between  vertebra?  are  filled,  in  life,  wiih  the  cushion-like 
cartilages.  Above  6,  are  the  cervical  (neck)  vertebrae  ;  b  to  c,  dorsal  (back)  or  chest 
vertebrae ;  c  to  d,  lumbar  (loins)  vertebra?  ;  d  e.  sacrum ;  ef,  coccyges. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTJC.5. 


*  103 


Formation  of  vertebrae. 


Fig.  26. 


160.  Each  Vertebra  is  composed  of  a  Body  —  a  Ramus 
(branch),  or  Lamina  upon  each  side  ;  Lateral  processes  ; 
Spinous  process  ;  Superior  and  Inferior  processes.  See 
Fig's  22,  23,  24,  and  25. 

[Process  is  the  name  of  any  sharp  prominence  or  projection  of 
bone.  Its  object  usually  is  to  give  the 
muscles  connected  with  it,  a  greater 
power  over  the  part  upon  which  the 
process  is,  as  exhibited  'by  Fig.  25.  The 
hand  can  move  the  skull  much  more 
easily  than  if  the  cord  were  attached, 
directly  to  the  head. 

[It  will  be  noticed  in  Fig.  22,  that  some 
of  the  spinous  processes,  viz.   between 
opposite  b  and  c,  incline  downward  very  | 
much,  while  above  l>  and  below  c,  they 
I"  "«'  -"«*  «•»«»«•    The  effect  of  this 


skull,  represents  prominences  up-  wni  be  evident,  if  we  endeavor  to  bend 
on  the  bones  ;  the  longer  these  are, 

the  greater  the  effect  of  any  force  the  different  parts  of  the  back.  We  can 
acting  upon  them.  .  . 

bend  it  very  much  in  the  region  of  the 

loins  and  neck,  and  but  little  in  the  central  part,  as  the  process  of  the 
bone  above  will  strike  upon  the  one  below  very  quickly,  and  thus  its 
motion  will  be  restricted.] 

161.  Tlie  Superior  and  Inferior  processes  are  those  parts 
of  the  Vertebrae  by  which  they  are  jointed  together,  viz., 
are  the  pivots  upon  which  the  vertebrae  turn,  as  seen  by 
Fig.  27,  28,  and  29. 


What  will  be  noticed  in  Fig.  22.  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  this  1  Where  can  we  bend  it 
the  most?  What  are  the  superior  and  inferior  processes  of  the  vertebrae?  Describe 
Fig.  26?  Describe  Fig.  27  ?  Describe  Fig.  28  ?  Describe  Fig.  29  ?  Describe  Fig. 
30  ?  What  is  represented  in  Fig.  26  in  respect  to  the  process  ?  Dees  precisely  the 
same  arrangement  exist  between  all  the  bones  ?  Do  the  motions  required  of  the 
different  parts  of  the,  buck  permit  the  same  kind  nf  joint  ?  Is  the  pivot  in  the  centre 
of  the  bone  ?  Which  side  of  the  centre  is  it  ?  Which  side  of  the  pivot  is  tin:  greater 
weight  ?  On  which  side  of  the  pivot  is  the  weight  of  the"  body  greater  7  What  is 
the  desired  end  that  may  be  gained  in  two  ways  ?  What  would  be  the  effect  of 


1 04       ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY, 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  27. — Position  of  two  vertebrae.         Fig.  28. — Position  of  two  vertebrae  when 
when  the  back  is  erect.  the  back  is  bent  backwards. 

Fig.  30. — Backbone  bent  forward. 


Fig.  28.— Vertebra  bent  forward 


muscles?    What  ilifliculty  would  be  experienced?    What  is  the  nature  of  the  mus- 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  105 

The  vertebrae  by  their  own  weight  and  by  that  of  the  body  tend  to  fall  forward. 

[As  is  represented  by  Fig.  27,  the  processes  do  not  rest  directly  upon 
each  other,  but  the  inferior  processes  of  the  bone  above  are  received 
within  the  superior  processes  of  the  bone  below,  so  that  the  bones 
are  bound  together,  as  well  as  allowed  to  move  in  every  direction. 
There  is  not,  however,  precisely  the  same  arrangement  in  case  of  all 
the  bones,  but  in  the  different  regions  of  the  back,  there  is  a  curious 
adaptation  of  the  joints  to  afford  the  desirable  motions  of  the  bones.] 

[It  will  be  noticed  that  the  joint  or  pivot  is  not  in  the  centre,  from 
the  front  toward  the  back  part  of  the  bone,  but  is  considerably  back 
of  the  centre.  It  will  also  be  observed,  that  a  larger  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  body  will  rest  upon  that  portion  of  the  spine  in  front  of 
the  pivots,  or  joints.  Therefore,  the  bones  alone  would  not  balance 
on  their  pivots,  as  represented  in  Fig.  22 ;  bui  would  fall  forward,  and 
the  whole  backbone  would  have  the  form  seen  by  Fig.  30.] 

[Two  ways  may  be  adapted  for  gaining  the  desired  end.  1st. 
Muscles  might  be  stretched  across  from  point  to  point  of  the  back 
part  of  the  bone.  By  the  contraction  of  these,  the  back  could  be 

' 

Fig.  31. — Backbone  bent  backward. 


cles  ?    What  is  said  of  india-rubber  placed  between  the  vertebrae  1    What  10  the  effect 


106  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

How  the  bones  are  supported  and  also  allowed  motion. 

supported  in  an  erect  position,  could  be  bent  backward,  and  by  their 
relaxation  the  bones  would  be  allowed  to  fall  forward.  A  great 
difficulty  would,  however,  be  experienced,  viz. :  it  would  be  necessary 
to  have  the  muscles  in  almost  a  constant  state  of  contraction.  This 
they  could  not  sustain,  for  they  are  of  such  nature  that  it  is  necessary 
they  should  be  frequently  relaxed.  They  would  be  too  large  also  for 
the  room  that  could  be  allowed  them.  2d.  Let  now  a  piece  of  India- 
rubber  be  placed  between  the  bodies  of  the  bones,  and  tightly  fasten- 
ed to  the  surface  above  and  below  it.*  Would  it  not  be  precisely 
what  is  wanted  1  Will  it  not  serve  to  support  the  bones  above  and 
the  weight  resting  upon  them  1  When  greater  pressure  is  used  will  it 
not  yield,  while  it  is  at  the  same  time  striving  to  "  spring  "  back  1  And 
will  it  not  do  so  as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  removed  1  If  on  the  other 
hand  sufficient  force  is  used  to  separate  the  bones,  will  not  the  rubber 
reluctantly  yield  or  stretch— and  will  it  not  draw  the  bones  back  as 
soon  as  the  force,  that  separates  them,  is  removed  7  But  the  rubber 
will,  by  use,  lose  its  good  qualities.  "What  is  desired,  therefore,  is 
something  that  possesses  all  its  good  qualities  and  will  retain  them.] 

162.  The  Cartilages  of  the  back,  called  Inter- (between) 
Vertebral  substances,  are  firm,  elastic  springs.  It  is  their 
duty  by  yielding  to  pressure,  and  by  stretching  when  force 
is  applied  in  the  opposite  direction,  to  allow  motion  of  the 
back  in  every  direction. 

[Some  positions  of  the  back  may  therefore  be  maintained  by  the 
action  of  the  cartilages  only,  while  other  positions  are  produced,  but 
cannot  be  long  continued,  by  the  action  of  the  muscles,  which  of 
course  are  obliged  to  resist  the  action  of  the  cartilages  also,  while  of 
course  some  positions  are  produced  by  the  combined  action  of  the 
cartilages  and  muscles.] 

[Some  of  the  muscles  which  support  the  hack  and  produce  its 
motions  are  attached  to,  act  upon  and  through  the  spinous  processes 
and  other  parts  near  by.  Others  connect  between  the  ribs  and  breast 

*  India-rubber  springs,  upon  this  same  plan,  are  now  made  and  used  beneath  cars, 
&c.;  and  a  man  has  taken  out  a  patent  for  his  plan,  which,  after  all,  is  nothing  so  good 
as  the  pattern  in  his  own  back. 

of  use  on  rubber  ?    What,  therefore,  is  desired  1     if  162.  What  are  the  cartilages  of 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


107 


The  cartilages  support  and  give  form  to  the  back. 


bone  and  the  front  part  of  the  hip  bones.  The  "  purchase"  which 
through  the  ribs  and  other  parts  of  the  chest  is  allowed  to  the  muscles, 
and  the  perfect  elasticity  of  the  cartilages  render  the  motions  of  the 
back  perfectly  easy  and  rapid.] 


Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  32.— Two  vertebrae  erect. 

Fig.  33. — Two  vertebrae,  cartilage  com- 
pressed. 

Fi2. 34.— Two  vertebrae,cartilage  stretch- 
ed. There  is,  in  fact,  but  little  if  any  real 
stretching  of  the  cartilages,  for  when  the 
back  is  erect,  and  the  cartilage  in  what  is 
called  a  natural  state,  it  is  compressed  to  a 
degree  by  the  weight  of  the  body.  When, 
therefore,  it  is  taken  offby  the  action  of  the 
muscles  upon  the  spinous  process,  the  car- 
tilages readily  spring  up  and  become  thick- 
er, without  any  force  acting  upon  them. 
Indeed,  by  their  action  they  help  the  mus- 
cles raise  the  back,  and  bend  it  backwards. 
On  account  of  this,  the  task  of  the  muscles 
of  the  back  is  easy,  and  they  may  be  small 
compared  with  those  that  bend  the  back 
forward,  though  the  last  act  at  great  advan- 
tage by  their  position,  and  the  lever  power 
given  by  the  ribs. 

163.   TJw  chief  duty  of  supporting  tke  back,  and  giving 
it  form,  belongs  to  the  cartilages. 

the  back  called  ?  What  are  they  1  What  is  their  duty  1  Describe  Fig.  31 .  Des- 
cribe Fig.  32.  Describe  Fig.  33.  How  may  some  positions  be  sustained  1  How  are 
others  1  Where  are  some  of  the  muscles  that  act  upon  the  back  attached  ?  Where  do 
others  connect  1  IT  136.  What  chief  duty  belongs  to  the  cartilages  7  What  becomes 


108  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

••^'  Important  facts  in  respect  to  cartilages. 

[It  becomes  exceedingly  important,  therefore,  to  know  the  condi- 
tions by  which  the  best  state  of  the  cartilages  is  produced  and  con- 
tinued. Unfortunately  it  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  this  precisely. 
It  is  not  known  whether  a  change  of  material  necessarily  takes  place 
in  the  cartilage  each  time  it  is  used.  Nor  can  it  be  conjectured  how 
rapidly  the  process  of  nourishment  and  changing  must  go  on.  All 
that  can  be  done,  therefore,  is  to  notice  reliable  facts,  and  deducee 
from  them  necessary  inferences.] 

164.  Tlie   Cartilages  must,  be  produced  and  nourished 
from  the  blood,  since  all  parts  of  the  body  are. 

////. — If  the  blood  be  bad,  the  cartilages  must  suffer.  And  as  the 
blood  is  formed  from  the  food,  without  the  little  child  receives  the 
food  which  contains  the  elements  of  cartilage,  how  can  the  cartilage 
be  perfect,  or  the  child  well  formed  1  How  unfortunate  it  must  he 
for  the  child  to  receive  more  food  adapted  to  form  fat  than  it  neede, 
for  then  it  will  of  course  be  very  heavy,  while  its  cartilages  do  not 
become  perfect. 

[How  the  nourishment  is  received  from  the  blood  by  the  cartilage 
is  not  certainly  known.  Some  deny  that  any  bloodvessels  can  be 
found  in  any  cartilages.  The  learned  Muller  asserts,  however,  that 
he  has  seen  them  in  some  of  the  cartilages.  They  cannot  however  be 
numerous,  and  must  be  very  small  or  they  would  be  readily  detected. 
The  changes  in  the  cartilages,  and  their  growth,  must  of  course  be 
very  slow.  This  will  account  for  the  facts  that  the  backs  of  young 
children  are  not  straight,  and  that  young  persons  who  "grow"  rapidly 
are  usually  much  curved  or  stooped  for  a  time.] 

165.  The  growth  and  nutrition  of  the  cartilages   are 
under  the  influence  of  the  organic  nervous  system,  since  all 
parts  of  the  body  are. 

Inf.— Whatever  enfeebles  the  nervous  system  must  exert  an  inju- 
rious "influence  upon  the  cartilages. 

166.  The  cartilages  differ  in  their  natural  constitution 
in  different  persons,  and  in  the   same  person  at  different 
periods  of  life. 


exceedingly  important!  What  is  all  that  may  be  done  in  respect  to  the  cartilages  1 
What  has  the  blond  to  do  with  the  cartilages?  What  is  the  inf  ?  Why  must  the 
change  in,  and  growth  of,  the  cartilages  he  very  plow?  What  will  this  account  for? 
U  165.  What  has  the  organic  nervous  system  to  do  with  the  cartilages  1  What  is  the 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  109 


Important  facts  in  respect  to  cartilages. 


[This  is  the  case  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  all  parts,  but 
more  true  of  some  parts  than  of  others.  Of  the  cartilages  it  is 
especially  true  that  they  differ  in  their  firmness  or  "  springiness,"  at 
different  times  and  in  different  persons,  even  if  they  adopt  the  same 
habits.] 

Inf. — It  might  be  expected,  as  is  the  case,  that  some  should  be 
straight,  while  others,  doing  the  same  things,  would  be  more  or  less 
curved. 

In  childhood,  while  growth  is  rapid,  and  in  old  age,  we  see  the 
back  curved,  or  even  very  crooked.  In  one  person  the  cartilages 
might  be  able  to  maintain  for  a  short  time  their  elasticity,  while  in 
another  individual  they  would  not  yield  so  readily.  It  will  not  be 
right  to  argue  from  what  is  true  of  one  person,  that  the  same  will  be 
true  of  another.] 

167.  Pressure  upon  the  cartilages  causes  them  to  yield 
at  the  point  pressed. 

Illus.  a. — When  a  person  carries  a  burden  it  causes  him  to  stoop. 

[This  is  not  because  he  wishes  to  do  so,  but  because  the  cartilages 
yield  to  pressure.  One  person  yields  to  the  same  burden  more  than 
another.] 

Illus.  b.— When  an  ox  draws  a  heavy  load  his  back  rounds  up, 
owing  to  the  yielding  of  the  cartilages. 

Illus.  c.— Every  person  is  shorter  at  night  than  in  the  morning, 
owing  to  the  yielding  of  the  cartilages  during  the  day. 

168.  If  the  pressure  be  removed,  the  cartilages  regain 
their  thickness,  if  the  pressure  have  not  been  continued  too 
long,  and  if  sufficient  time  for  rest  be  allowed. 

[In  respect  to  both  these  points  there  will  be  a  great  difference  in 
different  persons.] 

Illus.  a. — As  soon  as  the  burden  is  taken  from  a  man  or  animal, 
the  cartilages  straighten  the  back. 

Illus.  b. — In  the  morning  the  height  is  usually  the  same  as  it  was 
the  previous  morning. 

[This  is  not  on  account  of  any  thing  except  that  rest  from  pres- 
sure has  been  given  by  the  horizontal  position  during  the  night.] 

Inf.  ?  When  do  the  cartilages  differ  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  When  do  we  see  the  back 
curved?  Is  what  is  true  of  one  person  also  true  oJ  another!  if  167.  What  is  the 
effect  of  pressure  on  the  cartilages!  What  is  Illus.  a.  1  Why  is  this ?  What  is  Illus. 
b.  ?  What  is  Illus.  c.?  if  168.  What  is  the  effect  of  removing  the  pressure ?  Are  all 


110       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Advantage  to  the  cartilage  of  frequent  repose. 

Illus.  c.—A  French  physiologist  says  that  a  son  of  his  grew  shorter 
by  an  inch  during  one  night's  dance. 

[Those  who  shall  spend  the  night  without  repose,  will  always  find 
a  remarkable  effect  produced  upon  the  stature,  more  than  will  be 
during  the  same  number  of  morning  hours  after  repose.  That  is  to 
say,] 

169.  The  longer  the  time  after  repose  the  pressure  is  made 
the  more  effect  will  it  have. 

Inf. — Frequent  repose  or  rest  from  pressure  must  be  prof  table  to  the 
cartilages,  ESPECIALLY  IF  THEY  BE  WEAK. 

[How  relief  from  pressure  affects  a  renovation  of  the  cartilages  is 
not  certain.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  reasonable  to  believe  that  re- 
pose is  profitable  by  allowing  new  substance  to  find  its  way  to  the 
internal  parts  of  the  cartilages.  For  this  purpose  there  seems  to  be 
an  admirable  provision  in  the  arrangement  of  the  arteries,  which  lead 
the  nourishment  to  the  backbone.  An  artery  is  situated  by  each  side 
of  the  spinal  column,  so  that  nourishment  may  be  received  by  the  car- 
tilages from  two  sources.  On  this  account  it  is  almost  impossible 
altogether  to  cut  off  the  reception  of  nourishment,  for  if  the  back  be 
bent  in  one  direction,  the  new  material  can  pass  in  on  the  other, 
where,  indeed,  the  condition  of  the  cartilages  is  such  as  to  facilitate 
the  reception  of  nourishment.] 

170.  The  longer  the.  pressure  is  continued,  and  the  more 
severe  and  unwonted  it  is,  the  longer  the  time  which  will  be 
required  to  recover  from  the  effects  produced. 

Illus.—  Doctor  Baird,  Professor  of  Natural  Science  in  Dickinson 
College,  told  the  writer  that  he  measured  himself  one  morning  about 
eight  o'clock.  After  hunting  during  the  day  he  measured  himself 
again,  between  four  and  five,  and  found  he  had  lost  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  stature.  It  was  the  second  morning  after  before  he  had 
regained  his  usual  stature. 

[Some  may  think  it  impossible  that  so  much  loss  of  stature  can 
be  produced  in  so  short  a  time.  Let  them  consider  that  a  slight 
effect  produced  upon  each  cartilage  by  allowing  the  back  to  incline 
forward,  produces  a  remarkable  difference  in  the  perpendicular  stat- 

persons  alike  in  these  respects?  What  is  Illus.  a.?  What  is  Illus.  b.l  What  is 
Illus.  c.?  fl  169.  When  does  pressure  have  most  effect  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  7  Why 
is  it  put  in  italic  7  What  is  reasonable  to  believe  1  What  provision  exists  in  respect 
to  the  arteries?  What  does  this  render  impossible?  H  170.  If  the  pressure  be  long 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  Ill 

Bad  effects  on  the  cartilages  of  continued  pressure. 

lire,  as  seen  by  Fig.  36,  where  the  length  of  the  backbone,  measured 
through  the  pivots,  is  the  same,  but  where  the  height  measured  by 
parallel  lines  is  quite  different. 

171.  IF  PRESSURE  BE  CONTINUED  ON  ANY  PART  OF  THE 

CARTILAGES  FOR  TOO  LONG  A  TIME,  the  cartilage  is  rendered 
permanently  thinner  at  that  part^  and  a  corresponding  de- 
formity is  produced. 

Illus. — Those  persons  who,  on  account  of  business,  inclination  or 
any  thing  else,  preserve  one  position  much  of  the  time,  become 
crooked  in  a  corresponding  manner. 

Inf.  a. — No  one  position  should  be  continued  for  a  great  length  of 
time  together,  but  on  the  other  hand,  a  variety  of  positions  should 
be  sought.  Exercise  of  various  kinds  should  be  taken,  that  pressure 
may  be  first  made  upon  one  part  and  then  upon  another  of  the  car- 
tilages. 

[The  common  injunction  to  girls  to  "  sit  up,"  or  they  will  grow 
crooked,  cannot  be  right.  And  we  see  that  most  girls  are  more  or 
less  crooked,  while  young  men  are  mostly  straight.  The  Indians  are 
also  well  formed.  When  they  sit  they  always  take  easy  positions. 
Especially  should  this  be  observed  in  case  of  young  girls  who  are 
"  growing  fast.''  The  cartilages  will  need  frequent  and  long  repose. 
Easy  chairs,  easy  school  seats,  lounges,  &c.,  should  be  allowed  them.] 

Inf.  b. — Shcplder-straps,  and  shoulder-braces,  and  tight  clothing, 
as  well  as  supports  of  whalebone,  &c.,  in  the  clothing,  cannot  be  useful 
in  producing  or  preserving  a  good  form,  but  must  necessarily  tend  to 
injure  the  form. 

[In  the  first  place,  any  thing  of  the  kind  which  confines  the  back 
to  one  position,  must  cause  continued  pressure  upon  the  same  parts  of 
the  cartilages,  and  of  course  cause  them  to  become  permanently  thin- 
ner. Tight  clothing  also  tends  to  cause  deformity,  by  pressing  down 
the  ribs  at  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  This  must  necessarily 
draw  down  the  bones  of  the  back  to  which  they  are  attached,  and 
compress  the  cartilages  between  those  bones.  Thus  there  will  be  two 
causes  of  continued  pressure  upon  the  same  parts  of  the  same  carti- 
lages, and  the  result  will  be  that  they  will  become  permanently  thin- 
ner, and  the  form  of  the  back  produced  as  seen  in  Fig.  35. 

continued  what  will  be  required  7  What  is  the  Illus.  1  Does  it  look  reasonable  that  a 
person  could  grow  so  much  shorter  in  so  little  time  ?  What  should  we  consider  ? 
Which  spiiial  column  of  Fig.  35  is  the  longer  if  measured  through  the  pivots  ?  Have 
you  tried  an  experiment  to 'see?  IT  171.  What  is  the  effect  if  pressure  be  continued 


112 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Fig.  35. 


Here,  the  cartilage  has 
been  taken  out  between 
the  vertebrae  of  the  chest, 
and  they  have  been  allow- 
ed to  drop  down  and  pro- 
duce that  form  of  the  back, 
which  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  is  so  frequently 
seen.  It  seldom,  however, 
happens  that  tight  cloth- 
ing produces  this  deform- 
ity alone.  The  pressure  will 
not  usually  be  directly  up- 
on the  front  part  of  the  car- 
tilage, but  rather  to  one 
side,  and  hence  there  is 
produced  what  is  called  a 
lateral  or  side  curvature ; 
and  because  the  liver  is  on 
the  right  side  (PI.  3,  Fig.  1) 
the  backbone  is  usually 
bent  out  toward  the  right 
shoulder,  which  is  itself 
more  or  less  thrown  out, 
as  seen  by  Fig.  36.  Not 
only  this,  but  the  de- 
formity of  the  backbone, 
with  the  drawing  down  of 
the  ribs  by  the  clothing, 
causes  the  back  of  the 
chest  to  be,  or  appear  to 
be,  pushed  out.  adding  still 
more  to  the  deformity. 
Fig.  36. 


Fig.  35. — Back  droops  in  the  region  of  the  chest. 

Fi<r.  36. — 1,  1,  Represents  the  spinal  column  or  backbone  very  much  curved,  caus- 
ing the  right  shoulder  to  be  very  prominent. 


HYGIENE4  AND    THERAPEUTICS.  113 

Great  effects  of  exercise  in  preventing  and  correcting  deformity. 

[Tig-lit  clothing  and  supports  about  the  chest  prevent  also  the  sup- 
ple movements  of  the  body ;  as  they  depend  upon  or  are  produced  to 
a  great  degree  by  the  cartilages,  therefore*] — 

172.  To  prevent  deformity  by  preserving  a  good  condi- 
tion in  the  cartilages,  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  body  un- 
compressed by  clothing,  to  take  plenty  of  exercise  of  various 
kinds,  and  give  the  cartilages  frequent  and  sufficient  repose 
from  pressure. 

173.  If  deformity  have  been  produced  through  the  carti- 
lages, the  only  way  to  correct  it  is  to  take  exercise  of  various 
kinds,  to  leave  the  chest  free  to  move  in  all  directions,  and 
grant  frequent  and  sufficient  repose. 

174.  If  it  be  desirable  to  possess  or  preserve  elasticity  and 
gracefulness  of  motion  and  an  easy  carriage,  it  is  necessary 
to  leave  the  body  unconstrained,  take  plenty  of  exercise,  and 
frequent  and  thorough  repose. 

[It  may  be  asked,  What  kind  of  exercise  is  the  best,  and  how 
much  of  it  shall  be  taken — What  kind  of  repose  is  best,  and  how  long 
shall  it  be  taken,  and  how  frequently  1  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
any  general  rule  by  which  all  persons  can  be  governed  in  respect  to 
these  things ;  there  is  so  much  difference  in  the  needs  of  different 

*  This  is  not  philosophy  merely.  I  have  now  in  my  possession,  a  skeleton  of  a 
person  who  walked  the  streets  of  Paris  but  a  few  months  ago,  in  which  the  bones  are 
preserved  and  arranged  as  they  were  during  life.  The  chest  was  evidently  confined 
and  supported  in  one  position  for  a  length  of  time,  and  the  vertebrse  in  the  chest  almost 
or  quite  touch  each  other ;  the  cartilage  having  been  so  much  and,  so  long  compressed 
as  to  be  removed.  Nor  is  Fig.  35  an  exaggeration,  but  in  it  the  same  thing  is  repre- 
sented as  in  Fig.  22,  except  the  position  of  the  bones. 

too  long  a  time?  What  is  the  Illus.7  What  is  Inf.  a.1  Should  a  person  always 
"  sit  up  straight "  1  If  they  do  try  to  will  they  be  sure,  ere  long,  to  "sit  up  "  crooked  ? 
Who  arc  the  Htraighter  young  men,  or  women  ?  What  positions  do  Indians  take  ?  When 
or  by  whom  especially  should  easy  positions  be  taken?  What  should  be  allowed 
them?  What  is  Inf.  b.?  What  in  the  first  place  is  the  effect  of  any  thing  tight  or 
supporting  about  ttie  body  1  What  also  is  the  effect  of  tight  clothing  1  What  will  be 
the  effect  of  the  two  causes  of  pressure  produced  by  tight  clothing?  Describe  Fi<r. 
35.  What  seldom  happens?  What  other  effect  is  produced?  Describe  Fig.  36. 
Wlrtt  else  appears  to  be  done?  Does  it  not  appear  as  if  the  central  part  of  the  back 
icii*  •/tits/ird  nut  in  Fig;.  35?  Is  it  so  in  reality,  or  is  Hie  appearance  produced  by  the 
f/il!in<!  fiinrard  of  tlie  shoulders?  IT  172.  To  prevent  deformity,  what  is  necessary'? 
I7  l/o.  If  deformity  have  been  produced  what  is  to  be  done  ?  it  174.  What  is  said' in 
H  174?  What  rule  can  be  laid  down  in  respect  to  exercise?  What  is  the  object  of 


114       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Importance  of  repose  to  the  cartilages. 

persons.  The  object  of  exercise,  as  now  spoken  of,  is  to  throw  the 
back  into  a  variety  of  positions,  in  no  one  of  which  should  it  be  long 
preserved.  Exercise  should  not  be  taken  longer  than  till  it  causes 
fatigue.  (Fatigue  is  different  from  lassitude,  and  from  a  worse  feel- 
ing than  fatigue,  sometimes  called  laziness.)  There  is  no  rule  for 
repose,  except  that  it  should  be  sought  when  a  person  is  weary  of 
his  position.  Repose  to  one  part  of  a  cartilage  is  allowed  by  changing 
a  position,  so  that  pressure  is  made  upon  another  portion  of  the  same 
cartilage.  Hence  men  do  not  usually  feel  so  fatigued  after  sitting  for 
a  long  time  as  women  do,  as  by  changing  their  position  only  a  little  as 
their  clothing  will  allow,  they  give  themselves  great  relief] 

Illus. — When  in  a  crowded  room  men  are  compelled  to  occupy 
nearly  the  same  positions,  the  fatigue  becomes  almost  insupportable, 
and  similar  to  that  complained  of  by  women  so  frequently. 

Inf. — Children  ought  not  by  clothing  or  by  requirement  to  be 
compelled  to  occupy  one  position  long  at  a  time,  and  ought  also  to  be 
allowed  frequent  recesses,  to  give  relief  by  exercise  to  the  cartilages.* 

[It  may  be  asked,  Why  women  can  without  fatigue  bear  one  posi- 
tion longer  than  men  1  The  chest  of  women  being  kept  by  their 
habits  in  one  position  so  much,  the  cartilages  become  thin,  lose  their 
elasticity,  and  are  almost  as  passive  as  the  bones.  Indeed  in  some 
cases  the  front  edges  of  the  bones  seem  to  touch,  as  in  Fig.  35. 

175.  The  third  class  of  Cartilages  are  those  which 
lengthen  out  the  bones,  so  to  speak,  or  of  themselves  form 
part  of  the  framework. 

[The  gristle  of  the  nose  and  of  the  ear  belong  to  this  class,  but 
especially  worthy  of  notice  are  those  thick  strips  which  extend  from 
the  bony  part  of  the  ribs  to  the  breastbone.  They  will  be  spoken  of 
when  the  chest  is  described.] 

*  It  is  hoped  that  the  arguments  advanced  on  this  subject  will  be  well  weighed— as 
it  is  without  doubt  desirable  on  every  account  that  a  good  form  be  possessed  and  pre- 
served by  every  person.  The  course  heretofore  pursued,  of  trying  to  teach  girls  to 
"sit  up,"  by  directing  them  to,  and  punishing  them  if  they  did  not,  has  not  succeeded ; 
neither  has  the  plan  of  holding  them  up  by  supports,  &c.  Nine  girls  and  young  ladies 
in  ten  are  more  or  less  crooked.  Not  only  science,  but  facts  on  both  sides,  prove  that 
the  risht  course  has  not  been  pursued. 

exercise  as  now  spoken  of?  How  long  should  exercise  be  taken  ?  What  is  the  rule  for 
repose  1  How  is  repose  allowed  to  any  part  of  the  cartilages?  Why  do  not  men  feel 
fano-iie  as  quickly  as  women,  allowance  being  made  for  habit?  What  is  the  Illus. 1 
What  is  the  Inf.  ?  What  is  the  substance  of  the  foot  note  ?  If  175.  What  is  the  third 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


115 


Ligaments  formed  of  two  kinds  of  substance. 


SEC.  III. — Tlie  Ligaments. 

176.  The  Ligaments  are  those  parts  which  confine  the 
bones  together  at  the  joints,  and  at  the  same  in   such  a  way 
as  to  allow  the  desired  motions.     They  are  of  two  kinds, 
Inelastic  and  Elastic. 

177.  The  Inelastic  Ligaments  are  composed   of   pearl- 
colorea,  glistening  fibres,  arranged  so  as  to  form  straps  which 
pass  across  from  one  bone  to  another,  as  seen   in  Fig.  37,  or 
so  as  to  form  a  cap  around  a  joint,  as  seen  in  Fig.  38,  or  so 


Fig.  37. 


Fig.  38. 


Fig.  37.— Represents  the  stripe-like  ligaments  which 
pass  across  from  one  bone  to  another  in  the  hand,  and 
also  the  inter-osseous  (between-bone)  ligament  which 
connects  the  bones  of  the  lower  arm. 

Fig.  38.— The  hip  joint  opened.  C  L,  Capsular  liga- 
ment, which,  like  a  band,  passes  round  the  joint,  at- 
tached on  one  side  to  the  hip.  and  on  the  other  to  the 
thigh  bone.  R  L.  Round  ligament  passing  from  nearly 
the  centre  of  the  round  head  of  the  thigh  bone  to  nearly 
the  centre  of  the  deep  socket. 


Class  of  cartilages  ?    What  part  belong  to  this  class  1    n  176.  What  are  the  ligaments  1 
H  177.    What  are  the  inelastic  ligaments?     Describe  Fig.  37.      Describe  Fig.  38. 


116  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

The  joints  supplied  with  fluid  to  prevent  the  effects  of  friction. 

as  to  form  cords  stretching  from  one  bone  to  another,  as  seen 
in  the  last  preceding  figure. 

[The  white  ligaments  contain  very  few  if  any  bloodvessels,  and 
undergo  changes  very  slowly.  Hence  if  injured,  sprained,  strained, 
&c.,  a  long  time  will  usually  be  required  for  their  perfect  restoration. 
Patience  is  a  most  sovereign  remedy  in  such  cases.] 

178.  The  Elastic  Ligaments  are  composed  of  pale  yel- 
low fibres,  which  permit  extension,  but  powerfully  tend  to 
restore  themselves. 

1 79.  Some  of  them  are  found  between,  and  connecting  the 
sides  of  the  vertebrae.       By  this  arrangement  they  assist 
the  cartilages  in  supporting  the  back. 

[The  same  course  of  treatment  which  is  advisable  for  the  carti- 
lages is  for  different  reasons  good  for  the  ligaments  of  the  back.] 


Supplementary. 

[To  prevent  the  effects  of  friction  as  far  as  possible,  the  parts  which 
would  otherwise  be  in  contact  with  each  other  at  the  movable  joints, 
are  covered  with  a  skin  or  membrane  called  the  Synovial  membrane. 
It  is  attached  by  one  side  to  the  other  parts  of  the  joint,  and  indeed 
seems  to  form  a  part  of  them.  The  other  side  is  not  attached  to  any 
thing,  but  is  constantly  covered  by  a  fluid  formed  from  the  blood  in 
the  membrane  itself.  The  fluid  is  also  in  health  continually  removed 
from  the  joint  by  the  action  of  the  same  membrane.  Thus  the  fluid 
is  so  constantly  changed  that  it  is  always  in  the  most  perfect  state, 
and  gives  to  the  joints  that  superior,  glairy  surface,  which  will  at  once 
attract  notice  if  a  joint  be  opened.] 

[In  this  place  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  force  of  atmospherical 
pressure  has  a  very  powerful  influence  in  retaining  the  bones  in  their 
places.] 

What  is  said  of  the  white  ligaments  ?  IT  178.  What  are  the  elastic  ligaments  1  U  179. 
Where  are  some  of  them  found?  What  is  the  effect?  What  course  of  treatment  is 
beneficial  to  these  ligaments ?  What  tends  to  prevent  friction  at  the  joints?  How  is 
the  synovial  membrane  attached  ?  What  does  synovia!  mean  ?  What  does  mem- 
brane mean?  What  is  the  character  of  the  fluid  in  a  joint?  Did  you  ever  cut  open, 
or  notice  when  it  was  cut  opeii,  the  joint  of  an  animal?  What  is  meant  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure  ?  How  can  it  have  any  influence  in  keeping  the  bones  in  place  t 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  117 

Fibres— Fasciculi— Muscles— Tendinous  sheaths. 

CHAPTEE    II. 

Muscles,  Nerves,  Brain,  as  organs  of  voluntary  motion. 

SEC.  I. — Muscles  and  tlieir  Adjuncts. 
a,  Tendons;  b,  Fascia;  c,  Bursa;  d,  Cellular  Tissue;  e,  Fat. 

179-  Muscles  is  the  technical  name  given  to  those  parts 
of  the  body,  which  constitute  the  lean  meat. 

[If  a  piece  of  lean  meat  (lean  boiled  salt  pork  or  fish  is  bes'w)  be 
examined  it  will  be  found  to  be  composed  of  threads  finer  than  those 
of  a  cobweb.  Each  of  these  threads  is  composed  of  a  sheath  and  a 
substance  within  which  is  the  active  part  of  the  muscle.  The  sheath 
is  longer  than  the  inside  substance,  sometimes  but  a  little,  sometimes 
very  much.  The  sheaths  are  pearl-colored,  lustrous,  and  constitute 
the  tendons,  parts  which  are  found  at  the  ends  of  every  muscle. 
Hundreds  of  these  threads  are  gathered  into  a  bundle,  which  is  covered 
with  a  sheath  and  called  a  fasciculus.  Few  or  many  of  these  bundles 
being  gathered  and  covered  with  another  sheath  form  what  is  called 
a  muscle,  therefore] 

180.  A  Muscle  is  a  sheath  containing  fasciculi. 

181.  A  Fasciculus  is  a  sheath  containing  many  threads, 
called  ultimate  muscular  threads  or  fibres. 

182.  A  Muscular  Fibre  is  a  sheath  containing  a  fleshy 
substance,  which  does  not  however  extend  to  the  ends  of  its 
inclosing  sheath. 

Inf.— A  muscle  will  always  be  smaller  at  its  extremities  than  in 
its  centre. 

[The  inclosed  substance  is  not  as  long  in  one  sheath  as  another. 
Thus  most  of  the  muscles  are  gently  tapered  at  their  extremities.] 

What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  II.  ?  T  179.  What  are  muscles  ?  What  is  any  piece  of 
lean  meat  composed  of  1  How  are  the  threads  composed  1  What  is  the  lenjrth  of  the 
Bheaih  compared  with  its  contents?  What  appearance  have  the  sheaths?  TT  180. 
What,  then,  is  a  muscle?  11  181.  What  is  a  fasciculus?  U  182.  What  is  a  muscular 


118  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   PATHOLOGY. 


Different  kinds  of  muscles. 


183.  When  a  muscle  is  quiescent  &\\  the  fibres  of  a  fasci- 
culus are  parallel  or  nearly  so  to  each  other. 

184.  The  arrangement  of  the  fasciculi  vary  very  much 
in  different  muscles. 

[Hence  the  muscles  are  formed  into  different  classes.] 

185.  1st.  A  Fusiform  (spindle-shape)  muscle  is  one  where 
the  fasciculi  are  parallel. 

Fig.  39.  Fig.  40. 


Fig.  39.— t,  t,  Tendons  of  a  fusiform  Fig.  40.— Fan  shaped,  or  radiated 

(spindle-shaped)  muscle.  muscle. 

186.  2d.  A  Radiated  (fan-shaped)  muscle  is  one  where 
the  fasciculi  are  arranged  as  the  sticks  of  a  fan. 

187.  3d.  A  Penniform  (pen-shaped)  muscle  is  one  where 
the  fasciculi  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  a  central  tendon. 

Fig.  41.  Fig.  42. 


Fig.  41. — Penniform  (pen-form)  muscle. 

188.  4th.  A  Circular ,  Orbicular  or  Sphincter  muscle,  is 
one  in  which  the  fasciculi  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  rings. 

189.  5th.  A  muscular  tube  is  formed  when  the  rings  are 
placed  side  by  side,  or  when  straight  or  winding  fibres  are 

fibre  1  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  H  183.  When  a  muscle  is  inactive  what  is  the  state  of  the 
fibres  1  What  does  parallel  mean  ?  V  184.  What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  fasciculi  1 
V  185.  What  is  a  fusiform  muscle  1  if  186.  What  is  a  radiated  muscle  1  V  187.  What  is 
a  penniform  muscle  1  n  188.  What  is  a  circular  muscle  ?  if  189.  How  is  a  muscular 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


119 


The  object  of  muscles. 


placed  side  by  side  in  the  direction  of  the  tube,  and  so  as  to 
form  a  hollow  cylinder. 


Fig.  43. — Section  of  oesophagus,  or  meat-pipe,      a  b,  Circular  fibres,     c.  Shows 
longitudinal  fibres  in  another  layer  of  the  same  tube. 

190.  6th.  A  muscular  bag  is  formed  by  means  of  ring- 
shaped  fasciculi,  placed  side  by  side,  and  growing  smaller 
towards  either  end  or  side  of  the  bag,  or  the  rings  may  be 
interwoven  or  interlaced  in  the  most  compact  manner. 

Fig.  44. 


Fig.  44. — Stomach  muscles.  L  M,  One  layer  of  fibres  running  in  one  direction. 
C  M,  A  layer  running  in  another  direction.  E,  Lower  part  of  meat-pipe.  P,  Pylorus. 
D,  Commencement  of  second  stomach. 

[Other  varieties  of  muscles  might  be  recorded.  The  chief  dis- 
tinctions have  been  mentioned,  and  of  these  kinds,  or  a  combination 
of  them,  every  muscle  may  be  considered  to  be  composed.] 

191.    TJie  object  of  the  muscles  is  by  contracting  and  re- 
laxing to  produce  motion  and  force. 

tube  formed?    U  190.  How  is  a  muscular  bag  formed?    n  191.  What  is  the  object  of 


120 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


What  kinds  of  motions  muscles  produce. 


Fig.  45. — Represents  the 


192.  The   shortening  of  a  muscle 
takes  place  in  the  direction  of  its  fibres. 

Inf.  a. — As  the  fibres  are  parallel  in  a  fas- 
ciculus when  they  contract,  they  will  produce 
the  same  kind  of  motion,  that  is,  motion  in 
the  same  direction. 

Inf.  b. — As  the  fasciculi  of  a  muscle  may, 
or  may  not  be  parallel,  their  contractions 
may  or  may  not  produce  motion  in  the  same 
direction. 

193.  The  fibres  of  a  fasciculus  pro- 
bably contract  at  the  same  time. 

194.  The  different  fasciculi  of   a 

heart  cut  open,  or  rather.with  7  ,     \  .    j 

a  piece  removed,  the  thick  muscle  may  or  may  not  be  contracted 

sides  (o  n)  being  composed  of      ,    ,  i  ,  • 

muscular  fibres   interwoven  at  the  Same  time, 
in  every  possible  direction.                    - 

Inf. — The  motion  produced  by  a  muscle 

will  depend  upon  the  arrangement  of  its  fasciculi,  and  upon  whether 
all  or  part  of  them  be  contracted,  and  whether  the  different  parts  be 
contracted  in  succession,  &c.,  &c. 

Illus.— The  contraction  of  any  or  all  the  fasciculi  of1  a  fusiform 
muscle  will  produce  similar  motions.  The  contractions  of  the  differ- 
ent fasciculi  of  a  radiated  muscle  will  produce  different  motions, 
while,  if  they  all  contract  at  the  same  time,  the  effect  will  be  the  same 
as  if  the  central  part  only  contracted,  except  that  the  motion  will  be 
more  powerful.  The  sphincter  or  ring  fasciculi  close  the  opening  (for 
instance  the  mouth  or  eye)  about  which  they  are  placed.  The  fasci- 
culi of  a  tube  by  contracting  successively  move  substances  through 
the  tube.  The  successive  contractions  of  the  different  fasciculi  of  a 
bag  move  things  about  in  it,  while  the  simultaneous  contraction  of 
them  all  will  tend  to  expel  the  contents,  &c. 

[It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  the  motion  which  a  muscle  helps  to 
produce,  frequently  depends  on  the  action  of  other  muscles.] 

Illus.  a. — If  two  strings  are  tied  by  one  end  to  the  same  leg  of  a 
chair,  and,  at  the  other  end,  they  be  held  by  two  boys  standing  a 
little  distance  from  the  chair,  and  also  from  each  other,  it  will  be 
found  that,  when  both  boys  pull  on  the  strings  at  the  same  time,  the 

the  muscles 7  H  192.  In  what  direction  does  the  shortening  of  a  muscle  take  place? 
What  is  Inf.  a.l  What  is  Inf.  b  1  U  193.  Do  all  the  fibres  of  a  fasciculus  contract 
at  the  same  time?  Do  all  the  fasciculi  of  a  muscle  contract  at  the  same  time'? 
What  is  the  Inf. ?  What  is  the  Illus.?  What  is  also  to  be  observed?  What 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  121 

The  great  importance  of  practice  to  the  muscles. 

chair  will  not  move  directly  toward  either,  but  toward  a  point  be- 
tween them. 

Illus.  b. — If  the  neck  cord  (sterno-clydo  mastoid  muscle)  of  one 
side  be  shortened,  it  brings  down  the  head  and  turns  it  to  one  side, 
while  if  both  be  shortened  at  the  same  moment,  the  head  is  brought 
directly  downward  and  forward. 

[These  two  points,  viz.,  the  effects  of  the  combined  or  successive 
action  of  the  different  parts  of  a  muscle,  and  the  combined  or  suc- 
cessive action  of  different  muscles,  is  of  great  importance.  The  ease 
and  gracefulness  of  a  motion  depends  almost  entirely  upon  a  person 
having  the  most  perfect  control  over  every  muscle  and  every  fasciculus  of  it, 
BO  that  he  can  call  into  action  a  single  fasciculus  of  one  muscle,  and 
all  those  of  another  at  the  same  time,  or  in  succession,  as  the  case 
requires.  Especially  will  the  importance  of  this  be  evident  when  it 
is  shown,  as  it  will  be.  that  speech  is  produced  by  muscles,  and  the 
combined  action  of  muscles.  This  perfect  and  easy  control  is  partly 
natural  without  doubt,  but  mostly  obtained  by  PRACTICE  and  habit. 
Especially  is  the  power  of  gracefully  combining  the  action  of  the 
muscles  and  their  fasciculi,  the  result  of  the  most  thorough  and 
patient  training  or  exercise  of  the  parts.] 

Illus.  a. — At  first  the  fingers  of  the  musician  were  awkward ;  and 
when  he  could  play  one  tune  with  tolerable  nimbleness,  his  fingers 
would  appear  very  awkward  when  playing  the  same  notes  as  com- 
bined in  another  tune ;  but  when  by  years'  practice  he  had  played  a 
thousand  times  every  combination  of  notes,  the  combined  action  of 
his  muscles  in  every  way  became  easy. 

Illus.  b. — Almost  every  person  speaks  his  native  tongue  with  ease ; 
but  when  he  endeavors  to  speak  a  foreign  language  he  has  a  "  brogue," 
because,  though  he  uses  the  same  muscles,  their  actions  are  differ- 
ently combined. 

Illus.  c.— Very  frequently  the  gesticulations  of  a  speaker  will 
betray  his  avocation  or  the  trade  he^learned  in  early  life. 

[If  so  much  time  and  practice  be  required  by  the  musician  to 
perfect  one  class  only  of  muscles  ;  it  is  almost  discouraging  to  think 
of  the  varied  exercise  and  immense  practice  which  will  be  required 
to  perfect  the  action  of  every  fasciculus  of  every  muscle ;  untiring 
industry  however  will  accomplish  it.] 

is  Illus.  a.  ?  Have  you  tried  the  experiment  ?  What  is  lilies,  b.  ?  What  two 
points  are  of  great  importance  1  Upon  what  does  ease  and  gracefulness  of  mo- 
tion depend?  What  will  especially  show  the  importance  of  this  fact?  How  is 
this  control  partly  obtained  ?  How  mostly  ?  How  especially  is  combining  the  action 
of  the  mupcles  obtained  ?  What  is  Illus.  a  ?  What  is  Illus.  b.  ?  What  is  Plus.  c.  ? 
What  is  almost  discouraging  to  think  of?  How  can  the  difficulty  be  overcome  ?  Has 


122       ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  size  of  muscles  increased  by  proper  use. 

[If  a  piece  of  meat,  viz.  a  muscle,  be  suspended  by  one  end,  and 
a  comparatively  small  weight  be  attached  to  the  other,  it  will  pull 
the  meat  in  pieces.  During  life,  however,  we  sometimes  see  muscles 
of  similar  size  exerting  prodigious  force.  Upon  what  particular  state 
of  things  this  astonishing  cohesion  of  the  particles  depends  has  not  yet 
been  unravelled.  We  know,  however,  as  a  fact,  that  the  muscles  do 
exhibit  a  power  during  life,  that  they  do  not  after  death.  We  also 
know  some  of  the  conditions  necessary,  in  order  that  the  muscles  may 
exhibit  their  power  most  perfectly,  and  it  is  very  important  to  every 
person  that  they  be  brought  conspicuously  before  the  mind,  and  that 
it  should  be  deeply  impressed  with  the  facts  exhibited.  In  a  man's 
labors  he  uses  muscles,  in  communicating  ideas  he  uses  muscles,  in 
every  action  he  uses  muscles,  and  his  form  is  in  part  produced  by 
muscles.  If,  therefore,  a  person  would  apply  his  labors  most  ad- 
vantageously and  with  least  disadvantage ;  if  he  would  speak  with 
the  greatest  distinctness,  fluency,  and  effect ;  if  he  would  be  graceful 
or  well  formed,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  bring  his  muscles  into 
a  state  best  adapted  to  exhibit  their  powers  in  producing  motion  and 
force.] 

195.  The  degree  of  motion  or  force  which  a  muscle  can 
exhibit  (so  far  as  itself  is  concerned)  depends,   1st,  on  the 
natural  Jonstitution  of  the  muscle. 

[As  all  parts  naturally  differ  in  different  individuals,  we  may  infer, 
that  the  same  is  true  of  the  muscles.] 

196.  TJie  degree  of  motion  or  force  which  a  muscle  will 
exhibit  depends,  secondly,  on  its  size. 

Illus.— The  muscles  used  by  the  dancer  and  those  on  the  arms  of 
the  blacksmith,  and  the  muscles  of  other  persons  who  exhibit  much 
strength,  are  large  in  size ;  and  will  also  be  observed  to  be  firm. 

[As  would  be  inferred  from  the  Illus.  the  size  of  the  muscles  is  in- 
creased by  proper  use.  What  particular  cause  should  to  a  certain 
extent  increase  the  size  Of  the  muscle  when  its  labors  are  gradually 
increased,  is  not  known,  neither  is  it  certainly  known  whether  the 
number  of  the  fasciculi  will  be  increased  by  the  use  of  the  muscle,  or 

a  muscle  more  power  before  death  than  after  1  By  the  use  of  what  does  a  man  labor  ? 
What  have  the  muscles  to  do  with  ideas  ?  Can  man  produce  any  action  without  the  use 
of  muscles  ?  How  is  his  power  in  part  produced  ?  What,  then,  is  necessary  for  a 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


123 


How  rapidity  of  motion  is  gained. 


the  number  of  fibres  in  a  fasciculus,  or  merely  the  amount  of  sub- 
stance in  a  fibre.  The  last  is  more  probable,  as  by  use  the  muscle 
grows  firmer  to  the  touch.] 

197.  The  degree  of  motion  and  force  exhibited  by  a 
muscle*  depends,  thirdly,  on  the  position  in  which  it  is  at- 
tached to  the  part  acted  on. 

[For  as  a  window  blind,  a  door,  or  a  gate  is  moved  with  difficulty 
if  the  hand  be  applied  near  the  hinge,  but  is  shut  very  quickly  if 
sufficient  force  be  used ;  so  the  muscles  must  exert  great  force  if 
attached  near  the  joints,  and  will  produce  very  rapid  motion  of  the 
part  acted  on.J 

Fig.  47. 


vv 


Fig.  47.— Represents,  at  S,  the  ball  of  the  upper  arm  bone,  which  extends  to  the 
elbow  at  E,  from  which  the  two  bones  (radius  ana  ulna)  extend  to  the  wrist,  to  which 
the  hand  is  attached,  supporting  the  weight  W.  T  T,  Represent  the  tendons,  and  B, 
the  body  of  the  muscle  upon  the  front  part  of  the  arm,  attached  at  I  to  the  lower  arm, 
and  at  O  to  the  shoulder.  On  the  back  of  the  upper-arm  is  seen  the  muscle  attached 
to  the  shoulder  above,  and  to  the  projecting  point  of  the  elbow  below.  This  point,  it 
will  be  remembered,  is  a  part  of  the  lower-arm  bone— the  ulna.  When,  therefore, 
the  muscle  on  the  front  of  the  arm  contracts,  the  muscle  upon  the  back  must  lengthen. 
When  the  muscle  upon  the  front  part  of  the  arm  contracts,  the  third  kind  of  lever  is 
represented  ;  for  the  fulcrum  is  at  the  elbow,  and  the  power,  viz.,  the  muscle,  acts  be- 
tween the  fulcrum  arid  weight,  and  the  nearer  the  weight  the  power  acts,  the  easier  is 
the  weight  raised.  If,  therefore,  the  power  or  muscle  should  act  in  the  dotted  line 
above  the  arm.  a  very  smnll  muscle  would  be  sufficient  to  accomplish  what,  i<  i;nw 
done  by  O  I.  But  it  would  require  as  long  to  shorten  the  muscfe  an  inch  in  one  po- 
sition as  in  the  other;  but  the  contraction  of  O  I  one  inch,  will  produce  extensive 
motion  of  the  hnnd,  while  an  inch  contraction  of  the  dotted  line  would  raise  the  hand 
but  one  inch.  When  the  muscle  on  the  back  of  the  arm  is  contracted,  a  lever  of  the 
first  kind  is  represented.  The  elbow  is  the  fulcrum,  and  is  between  the  power  and 
weight;  the  action  of  the  power,  viz..  the  muscle  on  the  back  of  the  arm.  draws  the 
projecting  pnrt  of  the  elbow  up;  and  the  other  extremity  of  the  same  bone,  viz.,  the 
wrist,  must  be  carried  down.  If  the  point  of  the  elbow  projected  to  A.  anil  the  muscle 
acted  in  the  direction  of  the  dotted  lines  S  A.  it  would  have  greater  "purchase  :''  hut 
if  it  contracted  an  inch,  it  would  move  the  hand  an  inch  only,  while  now,  it  it  con1  ••act 
an  inch,  it  will  sweep  the  hand  through  great  space,  and  of  course  very  quickly.  The 
muscle  also  acts  with  greater  power  in  the  first  part  of  its  contraction,  than  when  its 
degree  of  contraction  is  near  its  limit. 

man  to  do  ?    The  force  of  a  muscle  depends  upon  what,  Firstly  ?    The  degree  of  force 


124       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Labor, health-giving  and  productive  of  happiness. 

[In  most  parts  of  the  body  rapidity  of  motion  is  very  desirable. 
To  gain  it  the  muscles  must  act  at  great  disadvantage  in  respect  to 
expenditure  of  power.] 

198.  The  degree  of  motion  and  force  a  muscle  can  ex- 
hibit, depends,  fourthly,  on  its  exercise. 

[Under  this  head  four  very  important  points  are  to  be  considered. 
1st.  The  effect  of  not  exercising  a  muscle.  2d.  The  effect  of  proper 
exercise.  3d.  The  effect  of  too  much  exercise.  4th.  The  effect  of 
frequent  and  regular  exercise.] 

199.  Want  of  exercise  diminishes  the  strength   of  a 
muscle. 

[At  first  it  might  be  thought,  that  a  muscle  would  suffer  no  harm 
by  remaining  inactive.  But  they  are  made  for  action,  and  by  the  wisest 
provision,  are  in  the  best  state  when  properly  exercised.  When  un- 
exercised,  they  grow  small,  soft,  and  flabby.] 

Inf. — There  should  be  some  means  of  warning  when  the  muscle  is 
suffering  from  inaction. 

[There  is ;  nerves  extend  from  all  the  muscles  to  the  brain,  and 
through  them  sensations  of  uneasiness  will  be  produced  when  the 
muscles  have  been  inactive  for  too  long  a  time.  Many  times  persons 
experience  these  sensations  without  knowing  the  cause,  which  can 
only  be  removed  by  exercise.  The  uneasiness  will  be  more  quickly 
and  distinctly  caused  when  the  muscles  have  been  accustomed  to 
exercise.] 

Inf. — A  proper  amount  of  labor  or  exercise  is  health-giving  and 
productive  of  happiness,  and  instead  of  being  a  cause  of  complaint, 
should  be  sought. 

[The  man,  who  is  compelled  to  labor  only  a  reasonable  number  of 
hours,  needs  no  sympathy,  and  whoever  spends  her  days  in  indolence 
and  inactivity,  because  it  is  not  necessary  for  her  to  labor  for  her 

or  motion  of  a  muscle  depends  upon  what,  Secondly  ?  What  is  the  lllus.  ?  IF  197. 
The  degree  of  force  and  motion  produced  by  a  muscle  depends  on  what,  Thirdly  ? 
What  is  said  as  illustration  ?  Describe  Fig.  46.  What  kind  of  motion  is  desirable  in 
most  parts  of  the  body?  H  198.  On  what  does  the  power  of  the  muscle  depend. 
Fourthly?  What  important  points  are  now  to  be  considered  ?  How  does  the  want  of 
exercise  affect  the  muscle  ?  When  are  the  muscles  in  the  best  state  ?  What  is  the 
Inf.  1  What  means  exist?  When  will  the  muscles  most  quickly  cause  uneasiness? 
What  is  the  Inf.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  man  compelled  to  labor  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  young  lady  who  does  not  exercise?  H  200.  What  is  the  efiect  of  proper  exercise? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  125 

_______  _ 

Beauty  lost  by  not  exercising.    Important  fact. 

j 

support,  knows  not  how  to  enjoy  what  is  within  her  reach.  Many  a 
young  lady  not  only  loses  her  beauty,  but  loses  the  elasticity  of  her 
spirits,  and  makes  herself  unhappy,  from  not  knowing  and  receiving 
the  advantages  of  exercise  of  the  muscles.] 

200.  Proper  exercise  of  a  muscle  preserves  or  even  im- 
proves its  condition. 

[What  proper  exercise  is,  will  be  understood,  if  we  examine  into 
the  effects  of  exercise  upon  the  muscle  itself.  The  first  effect,  as 
already  stated,  is  to  cause  a  change  in  its  substance.  This  change 
causes  a  requirement  for  a  corresponding  supply  of  blood.  This 
supply,  within  given  bounds,  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  muscle 
itself  in  two  ways.  1st.  It  is  believed  by  many,  that  the  changing 
parts  have  an  attraction  for  those  constituents  of  the  blood,  which  are 
required,  and  draw  them  along.  2d.  It  has  been  shown  in  Part  I.  that 
the  bloodvessels  are  so  arranged  that  their  contents  cannot  to  any 
gre^t  degree  pass  backward ;  viz.,  from  the  veins  into  the  arteries. 
The  muscles,  in  particular,  are  very  abundantly  supplied  with 
arteries.  In  the  muscles,  a  multitude  of  veins  commence,  and  receive 
blood  from  the  arteries  through  capillary  vessels  of  exceeding  fine- 
ness. When  the  muscle  contracts  it  becomes  very  hard,  as  can  be 
.  perceived  by  placing  the  hand  on  any  contracting  muscle.  (The  front 
part  of  the  upper-arm  when  the  hand  is  raised  for  instance.)  The 
contraction  of  a  muscle,  therefore,  presses  out  more  or  less  of  the 
blood  it  contains,  according  to  the  force  with  which  it  contracts. 
While  a  muscle  is  contracted,  therefore,  a  change  of  its  substance  is 
going  on.  whil<  it  cannot  be  renewed  as  it  is  not  in  the  receipt  of 
blood.] 

Inf.  a. — A  muscle  should  not  be  contracted  long  at  a  time. 
[This  is  a  very  important  fact,  it  shows  that  so  far  as  the  muscles 
are  concerned,  no  one  position  should  be  preserved  for  a  long  time.] 

Inf.  b. — There  should  be  some  means  of  warning  when  the  muscles 
have  been  contracted  for  as  long  time  as  is  expedient. 


How  shall  we  understand  what  is  proper  exercise?  What  is  the  first  effect  of  exer- 
cising a  muscle'!  What  does  this  change  cause!  How  is  a  supply  of  blood  ob- 
tained '.'  What  is  believed  by  many  \  What,  has  been  shown  in  Part  I.  ?'  What  ig 
BQJd  of  the  muscles  in  respect  to  bloodvessels'.'  What  is  the  state  of  the  contracted 
muscle.'  What  elfect  has  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  on  the  blood  it  contains? 
While  a  muscle  is  contracted,  what  is  going  on  in  it  ^  What  is  the  Inf.  a.  1  What 


126  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Many  interesting  facts  and  inferences. 

[There  is ;  through  nerves,  at  -first,  an  unpleasant  sensation  is  pro- 
duced, which  becomes  more  and  more  noticeable,  till  at  last  it  is 
almost  insupportable.] 

Illus. — If  a  person  extend  his  hand  horizontally  with,  or  even 
without  a  weight  in  it,  his  arm  will  soon  begin  to  ache,  and,  if  he  do 
not  observe  it,  his  arm  will  fall  powerless  by  his  side. 

[As  soon  as  a  muscle  relaxes,  the  blood  gushes  through  it  and 
renews  the  muscle,  when  it  is  again  ready,  without  injury,  to  contract 
again.] 

Illus. — In  "  muddy  going,"  stage  horses  are  frequently  observed 
to  improve  in  their  condition. 

[Their  muscles  are  powerfully  contracted,  but,  as  they  travel 
slowly,  there  is  sufficient  interval  of  repose  between  the  contractions 
to  allow  the  blood  to  visit  every  part  of  the  muscle.] 

Inf.  a. — The  contractions  of  the  muscles  must  be  followed  by 
proper  intervals  of  repose. 

Inf.  b. — By  the  alternate  and  proper  contraction  and  relaxation  of 
the  muscles  the  motion  of  the  blood,  in  its  circuit,  is  quickened. 

Illus. — When  a  physician  "bleeds"  a  person,  he  directs  him  to 
hold  and  "  work"  something  in  his  hand,  that  the  contractions  of  the 
muscles,  which  operate  on  the  fingers,  may  increase  the  flow  of  blood. 

[This  fact  shows  indubitably  that  the  flow  of  blood,  through  the 
muscle,  is  greater  when  it  is  active,  though  the  flow  is  intermitting, 
than  when  the  muscle  is  quiet,  though  the  flow  is  more  constant. 

201.    Too  great  exercise  of  the  muscle  is  injurious  to  it. 

[Why  this  is  and  what  too  great  exercise  is,  will  be  seen  by  con- 
sidering the  result  of  contracting  the  muscle  before  sufficient  interval 
has  elapsed  for  the  reception  of  a  good  supply  of  blood.  Before  it 
has  become  completely  renewed,  it  is  compelled  to  undergo  still 
farther  change  or  decomposition,  and  it  is  thus  becoming  more  and 
more  unfitted  for  its  duties.] 

Illus.  a. — The  flesh  of  animals,  raced  or  driven  to  death,  is  found 
in  a  state  of  partial  putrefaction,  and  so  changed  as  not  to  look  or  feel 
natural. 

Hint.  b. — Stage  horses  are  frequently  found  to  lose  in  good  appoar- 

does  this  show  1  What  is  the  Inf.  b.  ?  What  means  of  warning  exist?  What  is  the 
Illus.  ?  When  the  muscle  relaxes  what  takes  place  1  What  is  the  Illus.  /•.  ?  What  is 
Inf.  a.?  What  is  Inf.  b.  ?  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  What  does  this  fact  show  1  H  201. 
What  is  the  effect  of  too  great  exercise  of  the  muscle '!  What  are  we  to  consider,  to 
know  what  too  great  exercise  is  1  What  is  Illus.  a.  ?  What  is  Illus.  b.  ?  What  is 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  127 

A  well  rubbed  horse  will  do  a  journey  easily. 

ance  and  qualities,  when  the  weather  ami  roads  arc  good.  Teamsters 
also  say.  their  horses  suffer  more  from  drawing  an  empty  wagon 
quickly,  than  from  the  draught  of  a  loaded  wagon  slowly. 

[It  is  also  found  that,  if  the  muscles  be  allowed  proper  periods  of 
repose  after  each  contraction,  they  do  yet  gradually  become  imperfect 
and  require  a  longer  interval  of  repose.  Precisely  why  this  is 
necessary,  is  not  known.  It  is  chiefly,  without  doubt,  because  the 
blood  is  more  and  more  exhausted  of  the  materials  required  by  the 
muscle ;  in  part,  because  more  time  is  required  for  the  perfect  renewal 
of  the  muscle  than  its  ordinary  action  allows,  and  in  part  because  of 
the  state  of  the  nervous  system  produced  by  causing  the  action  of  the 
muscles.  That  the  imperfection  of  the  muscle  is  chiefly  owing  to  its 
want  of  renewal,  seems  to  be  proved,  by  allowing  the  muscle  a  longer 
interval  of  repose  and  rubbing  it  at  the  same  time.] 

Illus.  a. — Those,  who  have  the  care  of  race-horses,  are  very  careful 
to  have  them  frequently  and  thoroughly  rubbed,  especially  after 
exercise. 

Illus.  b. — Rubbing  was  one  part  of  the  preparations  to  which  the 
ancient  gymnastic  performers  subjected  themselves. 

Illus.  c. — A  horse,  when  driven  upon  a  journey,  will,  if  thoroughly 
rubbed  every  15  miles,  travel  60  miles,  it  is  said,  and  I  know  from 
experience,  as  easily  as  he  will  40  without  rubbing. 

[The  reason  why  rubbing  produces  a  beneficial  effect  is,  that  while 
the  muscles  are  in  repo«e,  it  quickens  the  circulation  of  blood  into, 
through,  and  away  from  them.] 

Illus.— A  person  rubs  his  cold  hands  and  soon  sees  the  skin  be- 
come red  from  the  increased  circulation  of  blood. 

Inf. — When  from  over-action  the  muscles  become  imperfect,  there 
should  be  some  means  of  warning  a  person  of  their  state. 

[There  is.  The  nerves  cause  a  sensation  of  fatigue  when  the 
muscles  require  repose.] 

Inf.  a. — The  sensation  of  fatigue  should  always  be  observed,  and 
relief  or  repose  given  to  the  muscles  which  have  been  active. 

[The  woman  who  plies  her  needle  will,  by  the  rapid  contraction 

found  if  repose  be  allowed?  Why  is  this  chiefly  necessary?  Why  is  it  in  part? 
What  does  long  repose  and  rubbing  seem  to  prove?  What  is  Illus.  a.?  What  is 
I/Ins,  b.  ?  What  if;  7//M.9.  c,.  ?  What  is  the  reason  why  rubbing  produces  a  beneficial 
rlli'ct  ?  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  1  What  are  the  means  of  Warning  1 
What  seems  to  be  the  importance  of  the  m  / -i-i •*  .'  What  is  Inf.  a. !  What  is  said  of 
the  woman  who  plies  her  needle?  What  is  said  cf  the  young  lady  ?  What,  is  Inf.  b.1 
What  is  said  of  the  man  who  mows?  What  is  said  of  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  &c. 7 
What  do  we  learn  in  regard  to  certain  occupations?  How  do  we  learn  it?  What  is 


128  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Bad  effects  of  alcoholics,  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  &c. 

of  her  muscles,  cause  fatigue  as  surely  as  he  who  with  slower 
motions  lifts  the  greatest  weights,  and  she  must  regard  her  fatigue, 
and  relieve  herself  by  giving  the  muscles  repose.  The  young  lady, 
who  endeavors  to  maintain  any  one  position,  will  surely  feel  fatigue, 
and  this  ought  to  be  observed,  and  a  change  of  position  made.] 

Inf.  b. — The  sensation  of  fatigue  should  never  be  removed  except 
in  extreme  cases,  by  any  other  means  than  those  which  perfect  the 
muscles. 

[The  man  who  labors  at  mowing  or  any  other  work  till  ten  o'clock 
and  feels  tired,  should  not  by  a  dram,  drown  the  sense  of  fatigue,  for 
though  he  goes  on  to  labor  without  immediately  feeling  it,  he  works 
with  imperfect  muscles,  and  must  in  the  end  suffer  the  penalty.  So 
is  it  when  by  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  or  any  such  thing  the  fatigue  of 
labor  is  removed — these  things  producing  scarcely  any  if  any  effect 
upon  the  muscle,  but  exert  their  power  upon  the  nervous  system,  and 
prevent  it  from  allowing  the  muscles  to  cause  fatigue  as  they  ought 
to  do. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  unpleasant  sensations  produced  by 
want  of  exercise,  and  also  the  fatigue  produced  by  too  much  exer- 
cise, we  can  easily  see  how  unpleasant  must  be  the  effects  of  those 
occupations  which  call  into  action  certain  muscles  and  leave  others 
unexercised,  as  well  as  the  favorable  effect  of  those  occupations  which 
call  into  proper  action  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.] 

////.  a. — If  we  would  enjoy  life,  it  will  be  necessary  to  select  some 
avocation  which  will  most  perfectly  exercise  all  the  muscles,  or  must 
combine  with  our  avocation  some  regular  business  or  pleasure  which 
shall  do  the  same. 

Inf.  b. — The  apparently  most  money-making  business  may  not  in 
the  end  be  the  most  profitable. 

202  Frequent  and  habitual  exercise  of  the  muscle  im- 
proves its  action  in  every  respect. 

[This  does  not  seem  to  result  merely  from  the  increase  in  size 
which  takes  place  in  the  muscle,  but  it  is  also  in  part  without  doubt 
owing  to  an  increase  in  the  size,  and  perhaps  in  the  number  of  its 
bloodvessels,  and  in  part  also  it  may  probably  be  attributed  to  ner- 
vous influences.] 

Inf.  a.  ?  What  is  Inf.  b.?  if  202.  What  is  the  effect  of  habitual  and  frequent  ex- 
ercise 1  What  does  this  result  from  ?  if  203.  Upon  what,  in  ihe  fifth  place,  does  the 
ft>rce  of  the  muscle  depend  1  Why  is  a  certain  kind  of  blood  required  by  the  mus- 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  129 


Beautiful  and  important  action  of  the  kidneys. 

203.  The  degree  of  motion  and  force  a  muscle  can  exhibit 
depends,  in  the  fifth  place,  on  the  quality  of  the  blood  it 
receives. 

[As  the  substance  which  composes  the  muscle  is  of  a  certain  kind, 
the  blood  must  contain  a  similar  kind :  in  the  first  place,  to  form  the 
muscle  when  it  is  growing;  in  the  second  place,  to  renew  the  muscle.] 

Inf. — As  the  blood  is  formed  from  the  food,  care  should  be  taken 
that  it  contain,  in  infancy,  as  well  as  at  other  times,  those  elements 
required  by  the  muscles. 

[As  the  food  is  received  only  at  intervals,  the  action  of  the  muscles 
must  in  those  intervals  be  continually  lessening  the  amount  of  sub- 
stance useful  to  the  muscles.] 

Inf.  a.— The  quantity  of  food  received  and  the  intervals  at  which 
it  should  be  taken,  should  depend  on  the  action  of  the  muscles. 

Inf.  b. — It  must  be  exceedingly  bad  policy  to  poorly  or  scantily 
feed  a  laboring  man  or  animal. 

Inf.  c — The  relaxations  of  the  muscles  between  each  contraction 
should  be  longer,  and  the  perfect  repose  of  the  muscles  longer,  the 
longer  the  time  they  have  been  used. 

[The  quality  of  the  blood  will  be  affected  by  other  circumstances 
than  the  action  of  the  muscles.  One  of  great  consequence  is,  the 
quantity  of  drink  taken.  This  being  received  into  the  bloodvessels 
will  dilute  the  solid  portions  of  the  blood,  and  the  muscles  will  be  a 
longer  time  in  receiving  the  amount  of  nourishment  they  require.] 

Inf.— To  drink  unnecessarily  is  injurious  to  the  muscles. 

[The  action  of  the  Kidneys  is  to  be  also  noticed,  as  when  they 
remove  water  they  hasten  the  renewal  of  the  muscles.] 

204.  Tlve  degree  of  motion  and  force  a  muscle  can  exhibit 
will  depend,  sixthly,  on  the  quantity  of  blood  it  receives. 

[This  is  to  a  great  degree  regulated  by  its  own  action.  Causes, 
however,  sometimes  exist  which  so  increase  the  circulation  elsewhere 
that  the  muscles  do  not  receive  a  full  supply,  as  will  be  hereafter  set 
forth.] 

[There  are  two  other  causes  which  do  usually,  or  may,  act  upon  the 
circulation  of  blood  through  the  muscles.  One  very  much  to  their 
benefit,  and  one  very  much  to  their  injury.] 

cle  ?    What  is  the  Inf.  1    What  takes  place  in  the  interval  between  the  reception  of 
food  ?    What  is  Inf.  a.  7    What  is  Inf.  b.  1    What  is  Inf.  c. '(    What  other  circum- 


130  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Tight  clothing  very  injurious  to  the  muscles 


[Rubbing  the  muscles  is  nf  surprising  benefit  to  them,  by  increasing 
the  flow  of  blood  to,  through,  and  away  from  them.  The  pony  that 
the  lady  rides  is  made  graceful  and  nimble  by  rubbing.  The  horse 
that  works  is  saved  and  restored  from  stiffness  and  soreness  of  his 
muscles  by  rubbing.] 

Inf. — Man  will  be  benefited  by  rubbing  his  muscles  as  much  as 
the  animal. 

[Every  laboring  man,  that  he  may  labor  with  ease,  should  every 
night  and  morning  give  his  system  a  thorough  rubbing.*  When 
during  the  day  also  the  muscles  exhibit  fatigue.*  a  man  should  rub 
them  thoroughly.  Whoever  also  desires  to  be  easy  and  graceful  in 
movement,  must  take  particular  pains  to  perfect  the  muscles  by  fre- 
quently rubbing  them.} 

[Tight  clothing,  on  the  other  hand,  by  compressing  the  blood- 
vessels, prevents  the  muscles  from  receiving  a  due  supply  of  blood, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  serious  evils  with  which  people  afflict  them- 
selves. It  directly  prevents  a  person  from  gaining  the  end  desired, 
viz..  gracefulness.  The  mother  who  wishes  to  see  her  child  beautiful 
in  form,  easy  in  her  manner,  and  every  way  attractive,  instead  of 
binding  the  clothing  tightly,  should  be  ever  on  the  alert  to  see  that  the 
clothing  nowhere  obstructs  the  flow  of  blood,  and  that  by  exercise, 
rubbing,  and  the  preservation  of  a  proper  degree  of  warmth,  it  is  in 
every  possible  and  reasonable  way  accelerated.] 

205.  The  degree  of  motion  and  force  a  muscle  can  exhibit 
depends,  seventhly,  on  the  influence  of  the  organic  nervous 
system. 

[By  its  action  the  bloodvessels  of  the  muscle  are  enlarged  or 
diminished,  as  it  is  believed ;  the  nourishment  also  of  the  muscle  go- 
verned, its  increase  or  diminution  produced,  &c.  When,  therefore,  all 

*  The  best  thing  with  which  to  rub  the  system,  is  a  pair  of  stockings,  half  or  more 
worn  out,  according  to  their  harshness  and  the  delicacy  of  the  skin. 


stance  will  affect  the  quality  of  the  Wood  ?  What  is  Inf.  a.  ?  What  effect  on  re- 
newal of  tin?  muscles  will  the  action  of  the  kidneys  have?  204.  Upon  what,  in  the 
sixth  place,  does  the  force  of  the  muscle  depend  ?  How  is  this  regulated  1  What  is 
the  effect  of  rubbing  the  muscles  1  What  is  the  Inf  ?  Who  will  be  hci-.t-liiud  by 
nibbing?  What  is  the  effect  of  tight  clothing"?  What  does  it  directly  prevent? 
What  should  the  mother  do?  fi  205.  What  does"  the  force  of  the  muscle  depend  on, 
seventhly  ?  What  effect  does  the  organic  nervous  system  have  ?  What  is  said  in 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  131 

Review  of  the  muscles. 

or  any  of  the  parts  of  the  system  are  diseased  or  in  health,  the  mus- 
cles must  through  the  nervous  system  feel  the  effect.] 


Review  oftJie  Muscles. 

206.  The  action  of  a  muscle  is  attended  with  changes  in 
itself  to  a  corresponding  degree. 

207.  The  substance  which  has  undergone  a  change  is 
hurried  away  by  the  very  action  of  the  muscle  itself. 

208.  The  action  of  the  excreting  organs  will  be  increased 
to  remove  it. 

209.  The  heat  of  the   system  will  be  increased  in  two 
ways.      1st.  By  the  immediate  effect  of  the  changes  in  the 
muscle.     2d.  By  the  fuel  which  is  furnished  to  the  system. 

210.  The  action  of  the  muscles,  by  quickening  the  move- 
ment of  the  blood  from  them,  distributes  heat. 

211.  An  amount  of  substance  is  taken  from  the  blood  to 
renew  the  muscle. 

212.  The  action  of  the  muscle  draws  the  blood  to  the 
muscle. 

213.  An  increased  demand  is  made  for  food  by  the  action 
of  the  muscles,  and  of  course  the  action  of  all  classes  of  the 
digestive  organs  will  be  increased. 

214.  The  action  of  the  muscles  quickens  the  circulation, 
not  only  through  the  excreting  organs,  but*  through  every 
part  of  the  body. 

[It  is  thus  seen  that  proper  exercise  has  a  health-giving  effect  in 
a  direct  way  upon  almost  every  part  and  duty  of  the  body.    It  is  what 

IT  206 1  What  is  said  in  H  207?  -  IT  208.  What  will  be  the  effect  of  exercise  on  the  ex- 
creting organs  1  IT  209.  What  will  be  the  effect  of  exercise  in  producing  heat  ?  U  210. 
What  will  be  the  effect  of  muscular  action  on  the  motion  of  the  blood  T  H  211.  What 
is  the  effect  of  action  of  'he  muscle  on  the  quality  of  the  blood?  IT  212.  What  effect 
doc.-!  the  action  of  the  muscle  have  upon  the  movement  of  blood  toward  the  muscle  1 
H  213.  What  is  the  effect  of  muscular  action  in  respect  to  food?  U  214.  What  is  the 
effect  cl  muscular  action  on  the  entire  blood  of  the  body  7  What  is  thus  seen  ?  What 


132       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Tendons—  Bursae — Fasciae. 

cannot  be  omitted  and  the  blessing  of  health  remain.  To  take  exercise 
regularly  and  thoroughly  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  imperative  laws  of 
health. 

a.    Tendons. 

215.  The  Tendons  are  pearl-colored,  very  strong  parts, 
found  at  the  extremities  of  muscles,  and  connecting  them 
with  the  parts  they  act  upon. 

[They  are  composed  of  the  sheaths  of  the  fibres,  the  fasciculi,  and 
of  the  muscles ;  sometimes  lying  parallel  with  each  other,  and  some- 
times so  interwoven  or  laced  as  to  form  a  cord  of  prodigious  strength. 
(a,  Fig.  1,  PI.  1.)  They  contain  few,  if  any,  bloodvessels;  are  injured 
in  but  few  ways,  and  with  great  difficulty  ;  but  when  injured,  recover 
very  slowly.  Time  and  patience  are  the  chief  remedies. 


b.    Fascice. 

216.  Fascice  is  the  name  of  a  great  number  of  parts,  dif" 
fering  considerably  in  their  nature,  but  serving  the  same 
general  purpose  of  binding  parts  in  their  proper  position. 

[Annular  ligaments  is  the  name  of  certain  fasciae,  or  bands,  which 
pass  over  from  one  side  of  the  ankle  to  another.  (Fig.  1.  PI.  1.)  A 
similar  one  surrounds  the  wrist.  Some  of  the  fasciae  have  muscles 
attached  to  them,  to  render  them  more  binding  when  necessary. 
(68,  Fig.  1,  PI.  1.)  The  fasciae  exist  Avithin  the  body,  as  well  as  at 
the  surface,  protecting  many  parts  from  pressure,  and  being  more  or 
less  strong  as  the  case  requires.] 

c.    Bursce. 

217.  BursoR  are  little  bags,  containing  more  or  less  fluid, 

is  one  of  the  most  imperative  laws  of  health!  IT  215.  What  are  the  tendons?  IIow 
are  they  composed?  VVha;  is  said  of  the  bloodvessels  of  the  tendons  ?  \Vliat  aiv  ihn 
chief  remedies  for  their  injuries?  if  210.  What  are  Fasciae?  What  are  annular  liga- 
ments ?  Can  you  perceive  one  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  ?  In  what  parts  of  the  body 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  133 

"  Weeping  sinews."    Cellular  tissue. 

placed  upon,  or  under,  or  between  any  tendons  or  other 
parts,  where  great  pressure  or  motion  tends  to  produce  much 
friction. 

[They  sometimes  become  unnaturally  full,  and  very  much  weaken 
the  part  where  they  are  situated,  and  are  called  weeping  sinews,  and 
frequently  believed  to  be  enlargements  of  the  cartilage  or  bone,  they 
feel  so  hard.  They  should  be  attended  to  as  soon  as  perceived.  For- 
cible and  steady  pressure  upon  them  for  some  days  or  weeks  will 
sometimes  remove  the  evil.  If  it  do  not,  more  active  means  should 
at  once  be  taken.] 

d.     Cellular  Substance. 

218.  Cellular  Substance  is  composed  of  thin  sheets  of 
flesh  intersecting  each  other  so  as  to  form  small  cells 
(vhence  its  name),  which  communicate  with  each  other. 

Fig.  47. 


Fig.  47.— A  small  portion  of  cellular  substance  or  flesh,  stretched  so  as  to  show  ita 
cells. 

[It  is  more  easily  understood  by  an  examination  than  by  a  descrip- 
tion.    It  can  be  seen  by  endeavoring  to  separate  almost  any  piece  of 

are  the  fasciae  found?  IT  217.  What  are  burs*  .'  What  improper  state  of  these  ia 
sometimes  found  1  What  is  to  he  done?  ^  ;2LS.  What  is  cellular  substance?  How 
is  it  most  easily  understood?  How  can  it  he  seen  ?  Have  you  tried  any  experiment 


134  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Corpulent  persons  may  not  be  great  eaters. 

meat  in  the  direction  of  its  fasciculi.  Very  delicate  sheets  will  be 
seen  stretched  between  the  two  parts  at  the  point  of  separation.] 

[This  substance  is  found  throughout  most  parts  of  the  system, 
loosely  binding  together,  and  at  the  same  time  separating  the  differ- 
ent parts  in  connection  with  which  it  is  found.] 

[Its  cells  are  moistened  by  a  fluid,  an  accumulation  of  which  con- 
stitutes one  kind  of  dropsy.] 

219.  The  use  of  the  Cellular  Substance  is  to  facilitate 
the  action  of  those  parts  with  which  it  is  connected. 


e.  Adipose  Tissue  (Fat). 

220.  Adipose  Tissue  is  in  the  form  of  small  cells  or  bags, 
which  do  not  communicate  with  each  other,  and  which  are 
more  or  less  filled  with  what  in  man  during  life  would  be 
called  a  semMiquid  oil.     Its  use  is  to  form  a  cushion  to  some 
parts,  to  protect  some  parts  from  loss  of  heat,  and  to  store,  so 
to  speak,  a  quantity  of  fuel  for  the  system  against  a  time  of 
need. 

221.  TJie  quantity  of  Fat  differs  in  different  persons,  and 
in  the  same  persons  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  at 
different  periods  of  life.  » 

[Some  constitutions,  in  case  of  man  and  animals,  produce  fat  very 
readily.  Why  this  is  so,  cannot  at  present  in  all  cases  be  accounted 
for.  It  is  not  by  any  means  true,  that  those  who  are  corpulent  are 
great  eaters ;  indeed,  the  protection  from  the  loss'of  heat  afforded  by 
their  fat  renders  it  unnecessary  for  them  to  eat  as  much  as  a  lean  per- 
son ;  and  it  has  often  been  noticed,  that  a  fat  animal  does  not  eat  as 
much  as  a  lean  one.] 

[In  the  fall  of  the  year  fat  increases  easily,  and  in  spring  it 
diminishes.] 

by  which  to  find  it?  Where  is  the  cellular  substance  found  ?  U  219.  What  is  the  use 
of  cellular  substance?  V  220.  What  does  adipose  mean?  In  what  form  is  adipose 
found?  What  consistence  has  its  contents  during  life  7  What  is  its  upe  ?  n  221. 
fo  the  quantity  of  fat  the  same  in  different  persons?  What  is  said  of  some  constitu- 
tions ?  What  is  not  true  ?  When  is  the  quantity  of  fat  increased  ?  When  does  it 
dimmish?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  What  Is  the  proportional  quantity  in  childhood? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  135 

To  lose  weight  in  the  Spring  is  healthy. 

Inf. — A  person  should  not  by  any  means  think  himself  sick,  be- 
cause he  loses  weight  and  his  appetite  in  the  spring ;  nor  should  he 
use  any  medicinal  means  to  increase  an  appetite,  which  is  not  needed, 
and  would  be  unhealthy. 

In  early  life  fat  is  in  plenty,  for  then  the  system  has  comparatively 
little  power  of  producing  heat,  while  the  extent  of  surface  by  which 
heat  may  be  lost  is  very  great.  In  old  age  the  incapability  of 
taking  exercise,  and  the  state  of  the  system  generally,  prevents  the 
rapid  production  of  heat,  and  the  protecting  fat  is  required.] 

[Too  large  a  quantity  of  fat,  however,  encumbers  the  system  and 
keeps  it  too  warm,  and  in  several  ways  is  injurious.] 

[Though  it  is  not  possible  in  all  cases  to  form  any  given  amount 
of  fat  in  case  of  man;  yet  as  the  fat  is  formed  from  certain  parts  of  the 
blood,  and  those  obtained  from  certain  parts  of  the  food,  if  those  kinds 
of  food  be  not  eaten  the  fat  cannot  be  formed :  and  again,  as  the  fat 
of  the  system  is  used  as  fuel,  when  the  system  is  exposed  to  cold  and 
no  fuel  taken  as  food,  the  fat  of  the  system  can  be  reduced  by  proper 
abstemiousness  and  exposure  to  the  cold.]  * 


SEC.  II. — Nerves. 

222.  Tlie  Nerves  of  voluntary  motion  are  white  pulpy 
cords,  .extending  from  the  brain  to  the  muscles  •  their  office 
is  to  communicate  an  influence,  called  nervous,  from  the 
brain  to  the  muscles. 

[There  are,  therefore,  several  things  to  consider.  1st.  How  they 
commence.  2d.  How  they  are  situated  in  their  whole  extent.  3d. 
How  they  terminate  in  the  muscles.  4th.  How  they  communicate 
the  influence  to  the  muscles.  5th.  What  will  prevent  and  what  will 
facilitate  the  accomplishment  of  their  duties.] 

223.  1st.  How  the  nerves  commence,  or  where,  in  particu- 
lar, is  not  known. 

*  The  kinds  from  which  fat  is  chiefly  formed,  are  fat,  sweets,  starch,  and  gums. 

What  in  old  age  1  What  is  the  effect  of  too  lame  a  quantity  of  fat  1  How  can  fat  be 
oftentimes  increased  ?  How  diminished  1  What  says  the  foot,  note.  .'  ''<  2-J-2.  What 
are  the  nerves  of  voluntary  motion?  What  is  their  office?  What  things  are  to  be 


136       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Whence  the  nerves  arise. 


[Some  suppose  their  inner  ends  are  to  be  found  at  one  place,  while 
others  think  they  detect  them  in  another.  It  is  quite  certain  that 
where  they  first  can  be  distinctly  seen  is  not  the  commencement  of 
them.  Some  are  seen  issuing  from  the  lower  parts  of  the  brain,  or 
what  by  some  would  be  called  the  upper  parts  of  the  spinal  cord. 
Here,  however,  are  not  the  ends,  for  the  nerves  can,  in  case  of  some 
of  them,  be  followed  back  a  greater  or  less  distance  into  the  parts  from 
which  they  issue.  Some  of  the  nerves  come  off  from  the  spinal  cord 
in  its  whole  length  in  pairs,  one  upon  each  side.  These  likewise  can 
be  traced  back  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  into  the  cord  of  which 
they  seem  to  form  a  part,  and  in  which  they  are  supposed  to  exist,  as 
far  as  from  the  lower  part  of  the  brain  to  the  point  where  they  leave 
the  cord.  Facts  and  the  necessity  of  the  case  so  far  support  this 
supposition  that  it  will  be  considered  as  correct.] 

[It  may  be  thought  strange  that  there  should  be  so  little  certainty 
existing  in  regard  to  a  subject  of  so  much  importance,  but  the  ner- 
vous substance  is  so  soft,  and  the  nervous  filaments  which  compose 
the  nerves  are  so  small  and  so  delicate,  that  it  has  as  yet  been  impos- 
sible to  solve  many  momentous  questions  in  regard  to  the  nerves.] 

224.  The  situation  of  the  nerves  in  their  entire  extent 
may  be  considered  in  two  respects.  1st.  Some  of  the  nerves 
pass  through  holes  in  the  skull  directly  to  those  parts  of  the 
body  which  are  to  be  acted  on  through  their  agency.  These 
are  called  cerebral  nerves.  2d.  A  large  portion  of  the  nerves 
leave  the  brain  through  a  large  hole  in  the  base  of  the 
skull,  become  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  follow  down 
with  the  other  part  of  it,  a  greater  or  less  distance  in  the 
central  canal  or  tube  of  the  backbone,  when  they  leave  it 
through  holes  between  each  of  the  vertebrae,  and  may  be  fol- 
lowed to  those  muscles  in  which  they  terminate. 

[First  we  may  consider  the  spinal  cord  and  its  protections,  as  after 

considered,  first?  Second?  Third?  Fourth?  Fifth?  H  223.  Where  in  particular 
do  the  nerves  commence ?  What  do  some  think?  What  is  quite  certain?  Where 
are  some  seen ?  Where  are  the  commencing  ends  of  the  nerves?  Where  do  some 
other  of  the  nerves  come  off)  Can  these  be  traced  back  any  distance?  How  far  in 
the  cord  are  they  euppo?ed  to  exist?  What  maybe  thought  strange?  Why  is  it 
difficult  to  ascertain  with  more  certainty  the  situations  of  the  inner  ends  of  the 
nerves?  How  may  the  nerves  in  their  entire  extent  be  considered,  first ?  Second? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


137 


Membranes  of  the  spinal  canal. 


the  nerves  leave  the  spinal  canal  they  are  similar  in  all  general  re- 
spects to  those  which  pass  out  through  the  skull.] 

[The  mechanism  of  the  spinal  column  in  which  the  spinal  cord  is 
found,  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things  that  we  can  behold.  Stout 
and  strong,  it  is  a  most  perfect  support  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body, 
and  an  adequate  protection  to  the  delicate  and  important  cord  within  it, 
at  the  same  time  it  is  so  flexible  in  every  direction,  and  also  so  elastic, 
that  in  no  respect  can  any  thing  more  excellent  be  found.  In  respect 
to  its  strength  and  flexibility  and  elasticity,  proof  has  already  been 
made.  But  at  the  same  time  provision  has  been  made  for  the  safety 
of  what  it  contains.  Above  and  below,  the  hole  through  each  verte- 
brae is  larger  than  it  is  in  the  middle.  Hence,  when  the  back  is  bent 


Fig.  48. — Is  an  ideal  representation  of 
•HI  hones  with  their  intervening  cartil- 
age (2)  of  the  back.     1  1,  The  bodies  of 
the  bone,  through  which  a  section  has 
been  made.    3  3^  Are  the  posterior  (back)    ~ 
processes  of  the  same.    4  4,  Is  the  canal   -* 
in  the  backbone,  the  surfaces  of  the  bones 
upon  either  side  being  full,  in  the  middle 
(against  4  4),  and  receding   above  and    •> 
below.     If  the  surfaces  had  been  in  the  * 
direction  of  the  dotted  lines,  the  canal 
would  have  been  of  the  same  size  at  ihe 
top,  middle,  and  bottom  of  the  bone  ;  but    m 
now  there  is  opportunity  for  the  bones  to    * 
bend  without  causing  any  angles  in  the 
canal,  or  lessening  it,  prejudicially  to  the 
cord. 


the  cord  is  not  injured.  The  whole  length  of  the  canal  is  lined  with  a 
strong  membrane  called  the  dura  mater.  This  membrane  is  lined 
with  a  delicate  membrane  called  the  arachnoid  (spider's  web),  the  in- 
ner surface  of  which  is  continually  moistened  with  a  delicate  fluid. 
The  membrane  turns  back  or  is  reflected  at  certaki  points  in  such  a 
way  that  it  is  double  the  entire  length  of  the  canal,  and  in  such  a 
way  that  its  two  moistened  surfaces  touch  each  other,  but  do  not 
grow  together.  In  the  same  way  as  sometimes  the  finger  draws  the 
end  of  the  finger  of  a  glove  into  it  and  makes  the  finger  double.  Such 


What  may  we  first  consider?  What  is  said  of  the  ^lechanism  of  the  spinal 
column?  Describe  it.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  perpendicular  hole  in  the  verte- 
bra* I  Tare  you  ever  noticed  the  vertebra-,  of  an  animal?  Will  you  try  and 
find  one  or  several  entire  vertebra  and  brims  them  at  the  next  recitation  7  Describe 
Fis.  43.  What  is  the  effect  of  such  a  form?  How  is  the  canal  lined?  How  is  the 
dura  mater  lined  ?  What,  is  the  condition  of  its  inner  surface  ?  How  does  the  mem- 


138 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   PATHOLOGY. 


Membranes  of  the  spinal  canal. 


Fig.  49. 
22-34 


Fig.  49. — Represents  the  bodies 
(a  a  a)  of  three  bones  of  the  back, 
broken  from  the  back  parts  (c  c  c), 
which  are  drawn  away  a  little  dis- 
tance, that  a  view  may  be  given  of 
a  perpendicular  section  of  the 
spinal  cord  (5),  and  the  parts  (1,2, 
2,  3,  4)  between  the  cord  and  the 
inner  surface  of  the  bones.  1, 
Dura  mater.  2  2,  The  two  layers 
of  the  arachnoid  represented  as  re- 
flected at  6.  3,  The  coarse  cellu- 
lar substance  occupying  what  is 
called  the  sub  (under)-arachnoid 
space.  4,  The  pia  mater. 


a  condition  of  a  membrane  is  described  by  saying  it  is  reflected. 
Nearer  still  to  the  spinal  cord  and  next  in  succession,  there  is  a 
thick  layer  of  coarse  cells  filled  with  fluid.  By  one  side  the  layer  is 
attached  to  the  arachnoid.  By  the  other  it  is  attached  to  the  pia 
mater,  a  membrane  that  tightly  surrounds  the  cord,  and  at  certain  in- 
tervals extends  out  in  the  form  of  points  to  the  dura  mater  which 
lines  the  canal.  These  "  ligamenta  dentata"  serve  to  stay  the  cord  in 


Fig.  50. 


Fig.  50.— A  Represents  (3  2) 
a  horizontal  section  of  the  cord 
and  pia  mater  covering  it  and  at 
1  1  passing  to  the  lining  (4)  of 
the  bony  canal.  1  1,  Are  called 
the  ligamenta  dentata,  one  of 
which  is  represented  in  B; 
which,  by  1,  represents  a  perpen- 
dicular section  of  the  cord ;  2  2, 
the  pia  mater  ;  3,  the  ligamentum 
of  one  side,  which  at  certain 
places  extends  to  the  wall  in  the 
form  of  points  or  tooth-like; 
hence  the  name  dentata. 


the  central  part  of  the  canal.    This  is  also  in  part  accomplished  by 


brane  turn  back  1  Can  you  give  your  idea  of  it  oti  the  black-board  ?  Describe  Fig. 
49.  Have  you  tried  to  draw  a  finger  of  a  glove  into  the  condition  mentioned  1  Describe 
the  layer  of  coarse  cells.  What  is  the  pia  mater?  What  does  pin  nn'inil  What 
does  mater  -mean?  Why  do  you  suppose  the  membrane  iras  so  called?  Describe 
Fig.  50.  What  i*  the  nsn  of  the  litramonta  dentata  1  What  docs  ligamenta  mean'l 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  139 

Structure  of  the  cord  and  nerves. 

the  layer  of  cells  before  mentioned  for  being  filled  with  fluid  and 
communiGating  with  each  other,  they  form  as  it  were  a  column  of  fluid 
which  presses  in  every  direction  on  the  cord.  The  cord  itself  is  to  a 
certain  degree  elastic,  and  thus  adds  the  crowning  point  to  its  perfec- 
tion so  far  as  it  regards  danger  of  being  injured.  The  cord  is  com- 
posed of  several  differently  appearing  parts.  They  are  distinguished 
into  the  white  and  gray  parts.  The  white  part  is  mostly  composed  of 
very  delicate  threads,  and  is  found  chiefly  at  the  outer  part  of  the 
cord.  The  gray  part  is  mostly  a  pulpy  mass  formed  inside  the  white 
portion,  and  only  appearing  at  the  surface  of  the  cord  at  certain  points. 

Fig.  51. 
A 

Fig.  51.— Represents  a  cross,  transverse,  or  horizontal 
section  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  dark  half-moon  shaped 
spots  representing  the  gray  substance. 


The  cord  is  likewise  considered  as  composed  of  two  halves  or  two 
cords,  the  right  and  left,  united  in  the  middle.  From  the  front  part 
of  the  two  halves  the  nerves  of  motion  are  seen  to  come  off.  but  be- 
fore they  leave  the  canal  each  one  unites  with  what  is  called  its  pos- 
terior root,  which  issues  from  the  posterior  or  back  part  of  the  cord. 
Outside  the  backbone  the  two  roots  have  formed  one  nerve  and  can- 
not be  distinguished  from  each  other.  If  the  spinal  or  cerebral  nerves 
be  examined  outside  their  bony  casement,  they  will  be  found  com- 
posed of  a  sheath  containing  a  multitude  of  fibres  or  delicate  threads. 
Each  one  of  these  is  composed  of  a  sheath  filled  with  a  delicate  pulp 
or  jelly-like  substance,  the  proper  substance  of  the  nerve.  If  the 
nerve  be  followed  it  will  be  found  dividing  into  branches,  as  they  are 
called.  That  is,  a  certain  number  of  filaments  will  diverge  from  the 
rest  toward  the  direction  of  the  parts  in  which  they  are  to  terminate  ; 
the  sheath  follows  upon  them  as  the  bark  of  a  trunk  is  continued  upon 
its  branches.  Thus  the  nerves  divide  and  subdivide  until  at  last  the 

What  does  dentata  mean  ?  How  is  the  support,  of  (lie  cord  in  part  also  accom- 
plished 7  What  quality  of  the  cord  adds  to  its  perfection  7  Of  what  is  (lie  cord 
posed  7  How  are  they  distinguished  7  Of  what  is  the  white  part  composed  7  Oi 
what  the  gray  part 7  Describe  Fig.  517  How  also  is  the  cord  considered  7  What 
come  off  from  the  front  part  of  the  halves  7  Hefore  they  leave  the  canal  what  takes 
place  7  Whence  does  the  back  root  issue  7  How  do  the  nerves  appear  outside  the 
backbone?  Of  what  are  the  nerves  composed  /  Of  what  is  each  thread  composed? 


140 


ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


How  a  nervous  plexus  is  formed. 


extremities  of  the  delicate  threads  have  no  companions,  and  appear  to 
terminate  in  the  fasciculi  of  a  muscle  or  in  the  delicate  muscular  fila- 
ments themselves.  Sometimes  in  the  course  of  the  nerves  some  of 
the  filaments  leave  those  with  which  they  have  thus  far  kept  company 
and  branch  off  to  some  new  companions,  the  destination  of  which  is 
the  same  as  their  own,  and  thus  form  what  is  called  a  plexus. 


Fig.  52. 


Fig.  52. — This  represents  a  plexus,  and 
the  fact  that  the  nerves  do  not  strictly  unite 
with  each  other,  but  that  the  filaments  of  one 
pass  to  be  inclosed  in  the  sheath  of  another, 
their  course  and  neighbors  merely,  being 
changed. 


j    225.  How  the  nerves  terminate  is  not  with   certainty 
known. 

[Some  think,  they  form  loops  either  with  themselves  or  with  other 
nerves.  Some  think  the  filaments  divide  into  many  branches  when 
they  reach  the  fasciculi  of  a  muscle,  and  that  these  branches  increase 
or  diminish  with  the  size  of  the  muscle.  There  must  be  a  decided 
difference,  between  the  termination  of  the  nerve  and  any  other  part 
of  its  extent ;  for  some  of  the  nerves  are  found  in  some  part  of 
their  extent  buried  in  the  midst  of  muscles,  which,  however,  are 
not  influenced  to  contract  by  any  nerves  except  such  as  terminate  in 
them/f 

226.  How  tJie  influence  is  communicated  to  the  muscle  is 
not  known. 

[Whether  it  be  that  the  nerve  necessarily  undergoes  changes  in 
the  fulfilment  of  its  duty,  or  whether  it  be  merely  passive,  is  not 
known.  It  is  not,  therefore,  known  whether  the  nerve  requires  periods 
of  repose  or  not,  neither  is  it  known  whether  the  influence  is  commu- 
nicated directly  from  the  extremity  of  the  nerve,  or  whether  there  is 


Describe  the  divisions  of  the  nerves?  Where  do  the  nerves  appear  to  terminate? 
Describe  a  plexus?  Describe  Fig.  53.  How  do  the  nerves  terminate?  Some  think 
what?  How  do  some  think  the  filaments  divide?  Is  there  a  difference  between  the 
termination  and  the  rest  of  the  extent  of  the  nerve  ?  How  is  this  known  ?  ^  226. 
How  is  the  influence  communicated  from  the  end  of  the  nerve  to  the  muscle  ?  What 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  141 

Nerves  must  receive  blood. 

some  hitherto  unfound  arrangement  for  transmitting  the  influence 
from  the  nerve  to  the  muscle.  Neither  is  it  known  to  what  distance 
from  the  extremity  of  the  nerve  the  influence  can  be  exerted.  It 
must,  of  course,  be  something,  but  cannot  be  great,  as  we  are  able  by 
exercise  to  control  the  action  of  very  small  parts  of  a  muscle,  for 
instance,  when  speaking.] 

227.  What  will  particularly  affect  the  duty  of  a  nerve 
is  but  little  known. 

[Of  course,  any  injury,  disease,  or  compression  of  a  nerve,  must 
obstruct  or  altogether  prevent  the  fulfilment  of  the  duty  of  a  nerve.] 

Inf. — When  a  muscle  cannot  be  contracted,  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  it  is  itself  in  a  bad  state,  and  all  the  rubbing  or  other 
applications  may  be  made  to  it  without  benefit.  To  find  the  seat  of 
the  trouble,  the  nerves  of  the  muscles  apparently  affected  must  be 
followed  back  to  where  they  meet,  at  or  above  which  point  the  seat 
of  the  difficulty  will  be  detected. 

[Whether  the  &  :e  of  the  nerve  at  all  determines  the  amount  or 
degree  of  influence  that  can  be  exerted  through  it,  is  uncertain.  So 
far  as  we  can  at  present  judge,  the  smallest  nerve  is  sufficient  for 
influencing  the  most  prodigious  feats  of  strength,  as  seen  in  certain 
diseases.  Whether  likewise  habit  of  action  perfects  the  condition  of 
the  nerve  or  not,  is  uncertain.  One  thing  is  certain,  frequent  and 
regular  use  does  not  injure  the  nerve.  It  must  receive  blood  and  the 
influence  of  the  Nervous  System  of  Organic  Life,  from  which  facts 
some  inferences  may  be  drawn  by  the  student.] 


SEC.  III. — -Brain. 

228.  Brain  is  the  name  given  to  all,  except  the  nerves, 
of  that  large  mass  of  nervous  substance  found  in  the  skull. 
Its  office  in  the  production  of  voluntary  motion,  is  to  pro- 
duce an  influence  which,  acting  through  the  nerves,  shall 
cause  contraction  of  the  muscles. 

is  said  to  be  not  certainly  known  of  the  nerves  1  Why  cannot  the  terminations  of  the 
nerves  be  great?  It  '227.  What  will  affect  the  duty  of  a  nerve?  What  will  be  the 
effect  of  any  injury,  disease,  or  compression  of  a  nerve  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  1  What 
is  said  of  the  size  of  a  nerve?  What  is  said  of  the  effects  of  habitual  use  on  the 
nerves.'  What  must  the  nerves  receive?  What  inferences  can  you  make?  1  228. 


142 


ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Form  and  structure  of  the  skull. 


[We  have,  therefore,  to  consider,  1st.  The  protections  of  the  Brain. 
2d.  Its  structure.  3d.  The  nature  of  the  influence  produced  by  the 
Brain.  4th.  What  will  facilitate,  and  what  will  prevent  the  fulfilment 
of  its  duties. 

a.  Protections  of  the  Brain. 

229.  The  chief  protection  of  tJie  brain  is  to  be  found  in 
the  form  and  structure  of  the  skull. 


Fig.  53. 


[An  arch  is  the  best 
possible  form  for  resist- 
ing the  effects  of  pres- 
sure, and  it  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  skull  is 
arching  in  every  direc- 
tion in  which  it  is  ex- 
posed to  danger.] 


[The  skull  is  composed  of  eight  bones.  Each  bone  is  composed 
of  three  Layers — differing  in  their  composition.  The  first  or  outer 
is  tough  and  called  fibrous.  Its  edges  are  notched  irregularly,  that 
it  may  be  locked  tc  its  neighbors  in  the  most  perfect  manner. 
The  second  layer  is  composed  of  thin  plates,  intersecting  each 
other,  so  as  to  form  cells ;  hence  it  is  called  cancellated.  Its 
particular  name  is  diploe.  It  will  not  be  seen  at  the  edges  of  the 
bones,  as  the  outer  is  there  thickened  and  joined  to  the  third  layer. 
That  is  the  innermost,  is  very  brittle,  and  hence  called  the  Vitreous 
(glassy)  table  or  layer  of  the  skull.  It  is  jointed  to  the  correspond- 

What  is  the  brain  1  What  is  its  office  in  this  connection  ?  What  have  we  to  con- 
sider? What  is  the  first  mentioned  protection  of  the  brain?  Describe  Fig.  53. 
What  is  the  best  form  for  resisting  pressure?  Did  you  ever  see  an  arched 
bridge  1  Can  you  mention  any  thing  else  where  an  arched  form  evidently  gives 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


143 


Form  and  structure  of  the  skull. 


Fig.  54. 


Fig.  54.— The  bones  of  the  skull  separated.  1,  Frontal,  only  half  seen.  2,  Parietal 
(wall).  3,  Occipital  (hack),  only  half  is  seen.  4,  Temporal.  5,  Nasal  (nose).  6,  Ma- 
lar (cheek).  7,  Superior  (upper)  maxillary  (jaw).  8,  Unguis  (nail  form,  being  about 
the  size  and  thickness  of  the  finger  nail).  9,  Inferior  (lower)  maxillary  (jaw).  Be- 
tween 4  and  6,  a  part  of  the  spenoicl  or  wedge-shaped  bone  is  seen.  Another  bone 
assisting  to  form  the  skull,  but  not  here  seen,  is  called  the  ethmoid  (sieve-like,  from 
being  full  of  holes),  and  situated  between  the  sockets  of  the  e^es,  and  forms  the  roof 
of  the  nose.  2,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  are  double.  The  small  bone,  and  others  like  it,  seen  in  a 
line  between  3  and  4,  are  called  ossa  triquetra. 

ing  layer  of  the  other  bones  with  an  even  edge.  The  joints,  called 
sutures,  of  the  different  bones,  have  peculiar  arrangements  according 
to  the  demands  of  the  case,  and  if  space  would  permit,  many  pages 
might  be  occupied  in  demonstrating  the  most  interesting  manner  by 
which  the  skull  is  made,  in  every  respect,  quite  perfect.  The  struc- 


great  strength!    Describe  Fig.  58.     Of  how   many  bones  is  the  skull  composed? 
Does  this  number  include  the  small  bones  called  ossa  triquetra  I     Why  do  you  suppo»e 


144  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

One  use  of  the  marrow. 

ture  of  the  different  layers  prevents  the  effect  of  jars  from  being  as 
severe  as  if  the  bones  were  similar  in  structure  throughout  the  thick- 
ness of  the  skull.  Being  composed  of  several  bones,  fractures  are 
not,  sometimes,  as  extensive  as  they  otherwise  would  be,  and  in 
several  respects,  the  skull  is  at  different  times  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions in  which  it  is  placed,  while  it  is  quite  as  strong  as  if  composed 
of  one  bone  only.] 

230.  TJie  second  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in  the 
structure  of  the  bones  throughout  the  body. 

[The  inside  of  most  of  the  bones,  especially  towards  the  joints,  is 
cancellated  like  the  diploe  of  the  skull,  as  represented  by  Fig.  55. 
Especially  is  this  structure  to  be  found  in  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae.] 

Illus. — The  appearance  may  be  observed  in  almost  any  roasting 
piece  of  beef  or  other  piece  of  meat,  in  which  the  vertebrae  are 
divided.  It  may  also  be  observed,  that  the  cells  are  filled  with  a 
semifluid,  fatty  substance  called  marrow7. 

[The  marrow  assists  in  "  deadening"  force  and  lessening  of  course 
the  jar,  which  would  be  felt  if  the  bones  were  solid.] 

231.  The  third  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in  the 
elasticity  of  the  cartilages  at  the  joints,  and  especially  those 
between  the  vertebrae. 

232.  The  fourth  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in  the 
form  of  several  of  the  bones  and  in  the  bent  position  of  the 
different  parts,  when  we  walk,  &c.,  and  in  the  curvatures  of 
the  spinal  column. 

233.  TJie  fifth  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in  the 
membranes,  situated  between  the  skull  and  the  brain. 

they  are  not  enumerated  ?  How  is  each  bone  composed  1  Describe  the  outer  layer. 
Describe  the  second  layer.  Did  you  ever  know  people  to  put  tan  bark,  ground,  be- 
tween their  floors  to  deaden  jars  and  lessen  noise  1  Describe  the  inner  layer.  If 
space  woulcl  permit,  what  mieht  be  done'?  What  does  the  structure  of  the  different 
layers  prevent?  What  is  the  advantage  of  having  the  skull  composed  of  several 
bones?  H  230.  In  what  is  the  second  protection  of  the  brain  found?  How  are  most  of 
the  bones  formed?  Describe  Fig.  55.  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  How  does  the  marrow 
produce  an  effect?  Does  any  thing  which  contains  a  fluid,  sound  more  dull  than  /he 
same  thing  empty  1  Will  a  semifluid  deaden  the  sound  of  a  thing  more  than  a  limpid 
fluid?  TT231.  What  is  the  third  protection  of  the  brain?  if  232.  What  is  the  fourth 
protection  of  the  brain?  Describe  Fig.  60.  If  233.  What  is  the  fifth  protection  of  the 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


145 


Dura  mater  and  arachnoid  membranes. 


Fig.  55. 


Fig.  55. — C  L,  Capsular  ligament.  R  L,  Round  ligament.  F,  Thigh  or  femor  bone. 
B  H,  The  same  sawn  open,  exhibiting  the_marrpw-rilled  cells  composing  the  internal 
parts  of  many  bones,  as  at  P  P  also.  P  FP,  Hip  bone.  S  S,  Space  filled  with  syno- 
vial  fluid,  but  here  represented  as  much  greater  than  in  reality,  the  surfaces  of  the 
synovial  membrane  in  fact  being  closely  in  contact. 

[If  we  pass  through  the  skull,  we  find  lining  it,  a  thick  membrane 
called  the  Dura  Mater,  which  is  a  continuation  of  that  which  lines 
the  spinal  canal.  This  membrane  is  also  lined  with  a  delicate 
membrane,  called  the  Arachnoid,  the  inner  surface  of  which  is 

brain  ?    Describe  the  dura  mater  of  the  skull.    Describe  the  arachnoids  of  the  skull  ? 


146 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Brain  rests  upon  a  most  beautiful  hydrostatic  bed. 


Fig.  56. 


[By  all  these  means,  force  is  dis- 
persed as  represented  by  dotted 
lines  of  Fig.  56] 


.  Fig.  56.— Represents  the  outline  of  Fig.  3. 
The  dotted  lines  represent  how  the  foot,  when 
walking,  is  put  upon  the  ground.  The  force 
acting  on  the  heel,  at  o,  is  scattered,  viz. :  a 
part  of  the  force  acts  through  the  ankle  and 
is  lost  in  the  direction  a  b,  only  a  part  of 
the  force  acting  in  the  direction  of  the  line 
a  c;  of  this,  only  a  small  part  will  act  in  the 
line  cf;  and  of  this,  only  a  part  will  act  in 
the  direction  e  h  ;  of  this,  only  a  part  in  the 
direction  of  g  k  ;  and  of  this,  only  a  part  in 
the  line  i  I.  In  fact,  these  lines  represent  but 
a  small  part  of  the  directions  in  which  the 
force  is  scattered ;  for  by  the  curve  of  the 
thigh  bone,  its  neck  and  the  connection  of  the 
hip  bones  with  the  back  bone,  as  well  as  the 
continued  curvature  of  this,  the  head  is  saved 
from  the  sudden  jar  produced  when  the  body 
is  as  erect  as  it  can  be ;  for  instance,  when  a 
misstep  is  made,  or  a  person  falling  strikes 
upon  his  feet. 


moistened  with  fluid,  and  is  in  contact  with,  but  does  not  adhere 
to  another  membrane  of  the  same  character,  the  inner  surface  of 
which  adheres  to  a  fourth  membrane,  called  the  Pia  Mater,  that 
grows  upon  the  substance  of  the  brain  itself.  At  the  base  of  the 
brain  a  thick  layer  of  cells,  filled  with  fluid,  is  found  between  the 
inner  layer  of  the  Arachnoid  and  the  Pia  Mater.  These  cells  are 
coarse,  and  have  communication  with  each  other.  Thus  the  brain 
rests  upon  a  most  perfect  hydrostatic  bed,  the  contents  of  which, 
being  less  consistent  than  the  brain,  will  always  move  quicker  than 
it.  and  thus  save  it  from  the  effect  of  jars.  As  the  two  layers  of  the 
Arachnoid  touch  each  other,  do  not  adhere,  but  are  moistened  with 

What  is  the  meaning  of  arachnoid  ?  Describe  the  pia  mater  of  the  skull.  What  is 
found  at  the  base  of  the  brain]  Upon  what  does  the  brain  rest?  What  do  you  think 
of  this  arrangement  ?  How  can  the  brain  move  in  the  skull?  How  is  the  skull 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  147 

« 

Brain  can  move  in  the  skull — falx — tentorium. 

fluid;  the  brain  can  move  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  skull.  Still 
farther,  the  skull  will  be  found  divided  in  the  middle  line  from  the 
top  nearly  to  the  bottom,  as  seen  by 

Fig.  57. 


Fig.  57. — Represents  the  falx  (3),  situated  between  the  two  halves  of  the  large  brain. 
Upon  the  under  and  upper  edge  are  seen  veins,  called  in  this  part  of  the  body  sinuses. 
2  2,  Branches  opening  into  the  upper  sinus.  6  8,  Branches  which  drain  the  lower 
portion  of  the  large  brain.  8,  Space  between  the  two  veins  into  which  the  great  sinus 
divides.  10  11,  Two  large  veins  which  have  wound  round  to  the  side  of  the  bottom  of 
the  skull. 

by  what  is  called  Falx.  This  is  tightly  stretched  to  support  the  brain 
when  the  head  is  placed  upon  either  side.  Passing  through  this  falx 
from  one  side  of  the  brain  to  the  other,  eight  layers  of  membrane  would 
be  found.  In  the  centre  of  the  falx  a  double  layer  of  Dura  Mater ; 
on  each  side  of  these  a  layer  of  Arachnoid;  again,  two  layers  of 
Arachnoid,  andlastly,  two  layers  of  Pia  Mater,  as  seen  by  Fig.  58. 

In  the  back  and  lower  part  of  the  skull  a  kind  of  shelf  called 
Tentorium,  is  also  found.  It  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
falx.  It  comes  forward  for  a  short  distance  into  the  skull,  and  is 
stretched  so  as  to  support  the  back  part  of  the  upper  portion  of  the 
brain,  as  seen  in  Fig.  59.] 

divided  1     Describe  Fig.  57.     Describe  the  falx.     Describe  Fig.  58.     Describe  the 


^ 


148 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


The  brain  is  beautifully  balanced  on  a  column  of  fluid. 


Fig.  58. 
abed 


Fig.  58.— F,  Falx.  a, 
Skull.  6,  Dura  mater. 
c  d,  Arachnoids,  e,  Pia 
mater. 

Fig.  59.— T.  Tento 
rium. 


Fi£-  59-  234.   The  sixth  protection  of  the 

brain  is  found  in  the  cellular  layer 
and  its  contained  fluid,  surrounding 
the  spinal  cord. 

[The  cells  of  this  layer  communicate 
with  those  underneath  the  brain.  Thus 
in  all  the  flexures  of  the  back,  more  or 
less  fluid  will  be  pressed  into  the  skull  and 
allowed  to  pass  back,  by  which  the  brain 
is  almost  perfectly  sustained  and  saved  from  any  injury.] 

235.  The  seventh  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in 
in  its  own  construction. 

[Being  elastic  to  a  certain  degree,  it  will  yield  without  injury.] 

236.  The  eighth  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in  the 
breaking  of  the  bones,  when  great  force  is  applied  to  them. 

[At  first  it  might  be  thought  a  misfortune,  that  the  bones  should 
be  broken.  But  experience  testifies  that  extensive  cutting  or  like 
injury,  by  which  even  much  substance  shall  be  lost,  is  not  as  in- 
jurious or  dangerous  as  a  severe  jar  (called  concussion)  of  the  brain.] 

tentorium?  Describe  Fig.  59.  IT  234.  What  is  the  sixth  protection  of  the  brain? 
Describe  the  effect  produced  by  it  1  IT  235.  What  is  the  seventh  protection  of  the 
brain?  IT  236.  What,  is  the  eighth  protection  of  the  brain?  What  might,  at  first,  be 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.    '  149 

The  size  of  the  skull  no  correct  indication  of  the  size  and  form  of  brain. 

237.  The  ninth  protection  of  the  brain  is  found  in  the 
clothing  worn  upon  the  head,  in  the  hair  and  other  coverings 
on  the  skull. 

Inf. — Such  complicate  arrangements  having  been  made  to  save 
the  brain  from  concussion,  it  is  certainly  evident,  that  all  causes  of 
extraordinary  jars  should  be  carefully  avoided,  when  not  absolutely 
necessary.  Jumping  from  great  heights,  turning  "  summersets,"  wres- 
tling, striking  a  person  on  the  head,  cuffing  the  ears,  &c.,  should  not 
be  done. 

b.  Structure  of  the  Brain. 

In  form  and  size  the  brain  is  somewhat  determined 
by  the  skull. 

[The  thickness  of  the  skull  and  membranes  within  it  vary  so  much 
that  no  dependence  can  be  placed  upon  the  skull  for  any  thing  more 
than  a  general  outline.  The  under  surface  of  the  brain  is  very  irre- 
gular in  form.  The  outline  of  the  upper  part  is  more  regular.  Its 
particular  form,  however,  is  very  irregular,  the  surface  of  that  which 
is  above  the  tentorium  being  uneven  like  that  of  a  peach-stone.  The 
prominences  are  called  convolutions.  The  spaces  between  are  called 
anfractuosities.  The  convolutions  in  different  brains  do  not  corres- 
pond in  number  or  in  size,  neither,  indeed,  do  those  of  the  different 
sides  of  the  brain.] 

238.  The  consistence  of  the  brain  is  that  of  a  pulp  or 
jelly,  though  different  parts  differ  in  this  respect. 

239.  TJie  brain  is  composed  of   many  different   parts, 
which  differ  from  each  other  in  color,  form,  size,  and  posi- 
tion.    The  particular  use  of  any  of  the  parts  is  not  yet  cer- 
tainly known. 

[Without  doubt,  different  duties  are  performed  by  these,  but  as  we 

thought  1  What  does  experience  testify  7  U  237.  What  is  the  ninth  protection  of  the 
brain  1  Can  you  now  give,  in  a  condensed  manner,  the  several  protections  of  the 
brain?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  Tl  237.  What  is  somewhat  determined  by  the  skull  1 
What  is  said  of  the  thickness  of  the  skull  and  membranes?  What  of  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  brain'!  What  of  the  outline  of  the  upper  part?  What  of  its  particular 
form  ?  What  is  the  name  of  the  prominences  1  What  is  the  name  of  the  interstices? 
V  238.  What  is  the  consistence  of  the  brain  1  Of  what  is  the  brain  comoosed  1  What 


150 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Appearance  of  the  brain. 


do  not  yet  know  the  mode  in  which  the  duties  of  the  brain  are  per- 
formed, or  all  the  requisites  for  their  fulfilment,  we  cannot  of  course 
determine  the  duties  of  the  individual  parts.  Though  unsatisfactory, 
therefore,  we  must  be  content  with  a  brief  description  of  the  parts  as 
they  appear.  1st.  The  nervous  substances  is  divided  by  the  Ten- 
torium  into  the  upper  and  larger  brain,  called  the  Cerebrum,  and  the 
smaller  and  lower  brain,  called  the  Cerebellum.  2d.  The  Cerebrum  is 
partially  divided  by  the  Falx,  into  the  right  and  left  halves  or  hemi- 
spheres. Beneath  the  lower  edge  of  the  falx,  they  are,  however, 
united  by  white  nervous  fibres,  which  from  their  firmness,  are  called 
the  Corpus  Callosum,  which  is  readily  seen  by  slicing  off  the  upper 
part  of  the  two  halves  to  a  horizontal  level  with  the  corpus,  as  seen  in 

Fig.  60. 


Fig.  60. — Represents  a  section  of  the  brain  on  a  level  with  the  bridge,  or  corpus 
callosum  (rf,  e,  a) ;  a,  the  front ;  6,  the  back  ;  and  c,  the  middle  part  ofthe  whit*  or 
medullary  portion  of  the  brain  ;  /,/,/../",  the  gray,  cineritious,  cortical  or  outer  part 
of  the  brain ;  x,  a  deep  fissure  extending  from  the  front  surface  of  the  brain  to  the 
bridge ;  y,  a  similar  fissure  at  the  back  part. 

is,  without  doubt,  true  1  With  what  must  we  be  content  1  How  is  the  nervous  sub- 
stance divided  by  the  tentorium  ?  How  is  the  cerebrum  divided  by  the  falx  ?  What  is 
the  corpus  callosum  7  How  is  it  seen  ?  Describe  Fig.  60.  What  is  said  of  the  entire 
halves  of  the  cerebrum  7  How  cannot  the  surface  of  the  cerebrum  be  determined  1 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


151 


Form  of  white  substance  produces  form  of  outside  of  the  brain. 

The  entire  surface  of  these  halves  is  convoluted,  to  wit,  underneath 
the  cerebrum  at  the  front  part,  and  at  the  back  part,  where  it  rests 
on  the  Tentorium,  and  also  where  the  Falx  is  situated.  The  surface 
of  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  cannot,  therefore,  be  at  all  deter- 
mined by  examining  that  portion  of  the  skull  we  can  reach  during 
life.  The  outer  portion  of  the  cerebrum  for  a  slight  depth,  is  a  deli- 
cate pulp  of  a  gray  color.  When  that  substance  called  the  gray  ci- 
neritious,(ash,  from  its  color)  or  cortical  (bark)  portion  is  removed,  a 
large  mass  of  white  substance  is  presented,  the  surface  of  it  having 
the  same  uneven  appearance  as  the  surface  of  the  brain,  which,  in- 
deed, is  produced  by  the  white  substance  over  which  the  gray  sub- 
stance is  spread  in  a  tolerably  even  layer,  as  seen  in  Fig.  61.  When 
the  cerebrum  is  sliced  away  below  the  level  of  the  corpus  callosum, 
a  number  of  curiously  looking  parts  appear,  as  seen  in  Fig.  61,  and 


Fig.  61. 


Fig.  61. — Section  of  the  skull,  A  A ;  the  membranes,  B  B ;  the  gray  substance, 
C  C;  the  medullary  portion,  D  D;  the  postesior  horn,  E,  and  anterior  part,  F,  of  the 
ventricles.  The  choroid  plexus  is  seen  at  G.  In  the  bottom  and  between  the  ventricles 
several  parts  are  seen,  but  tlieir  use  is  not  known. 


152       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Ventricles  of  the  brain  are  not  cavities. 

what  are  called  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  are  laid  open.  They  are 
usually  spoken  of  as  cavities,  but  are  not  so  in  ordinary  cases,  as 
their  sides  touch  each  other,  except  separated  by  an  accumulation  of 
the  fluid  which  usually  in  small  quantity  moistens  the  sides  of  the 
ventricles,  and  prevents  them  from  adhering.  What  all  this  com- 
plicate arrangement  is  for,  is  not  in  particular  known.  The  cerebel- 
lum is  one-ninth  or  twelfth  as  large  as  the  cerebrun*  It  is  slightly 
divided  at  the  middle  line  into  what  are  called  its  hemispheres.  It 
is  quite  smooth  on  its  outer  surface,  which  is  marked  with  alternate 
stripes  of  white  and  gray,  owing  to  the  alternate  strata  of  the  substance 
composing  it  near  the  surface.  It  is  attached  to  the  lower  portion  of 
the  cerebrum,  and  to  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  marrow.  Many 
conjectures  have  been  made  in  regard  to  its  use,  but  none  of  them 
have  proved  correct  as  yet,  see  Fig.  62.] 

Fig.  62. 


Fig.  62.— Upper  surface  of  the  small  brain. 


c.   The  nature  of  the  Nervous  Influence. 

240.  The  nature  of  the  nervous  influence,  is  to  cause 
muscles  to  contract,  to  act  in  an  isolated  manner  through 
nervous  filaments,  and  to  be  produced  by  nervous  substance. 

Describe  the  outer  portion  of  the  brain"?  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  white  sub- 
stance of  the  cerebrum.  What  is  found  below  the  level  of  the  corpus  callosmn? 
Describe  Fis.  61.  How  are  the  ventricles  usually  spoken  of  1  Is  this  correct  ?  What 
is  the  size  of  the  cerebellum  compared  with  the  cerebrum  ?  How  is  it  slightly  divided  1 
What  kind  of  surface  has  it?  Describe  Fig.  62?  U  240.  What  is  the  nature  of  the 


HYGIENE   AND   THERAPEUTICS.  153 

Nervous  influence  not  similar  to  the  electric  principle. 

[Farther  than  this  is  not  known  with  certainty.  It  seems  to  be 
inconceivable  that  it  should  be  produced  without  the  decomposition 
of  something.  The  change,  also,  which  is  constantly  taking  place  in 
the  blood  as  it  circulates  through  the  brain,  indicates  that  the  in- 
fluence is  produced  by  changes  in  the  nervous  substance ;  but  what 
portions  of  the  brain  by  decomposition  produce  the  influence,  or 
how  much  must  be  decomposed  to  produce  a  given  effect  cannot  at 
present  be  conjectured,  or  how  its  nature  is  such,  that  it  acts  through 
one  filament  only  of  a  nerve,  or  what  its  nature  is  in  other  respects, 
than  those  already  mentioned,  cannot  even  be  conjectured.  It  has  been 
compared  to  the  electric,  galvanic,  and  magnetic  principles,  indeed 
has  been  thought  to  be  the  same.  In  this  a  great  mistake  has  been 
made.  The  cause  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  and  the  electric, 
&c.  principle,  are  not  at  all  similar.  If  the  electric  influence  act  upon 
any  part  of  a  nerve,  a  similar  effect  will  be  produced  through  all  its 
filaments.  Indeed,  it  will  be  found,  that  the  action  of  the  electric 
principle  is  only  one  among  several  causes  that  will  cause  the  nervous 
influence  to  be  produced  or  to  act.  Hence,  the  electric  principle 
does  not  itself  cause  contraction  of  muscles  only  as  it  causes  the 
nervous  influence  to  do  it.  Nor  is  this  singular.  Other  causes  can 
produce  the  nervous  influence,  and  cause  it  to  act  either  directly  or 
indirectly.  The  mind  can  produce  it,  or  cause  it  to  act.  How,  we 
cannot  say.  Light  also  can  cause  it  to  act.] 

lllus. — If  a  candle  be  brought  near  the  eye,  the  colored  part  round 
the  pupil  will  be  observed  to  contract  the  opening. 

[Heat  also  will  cause  the  nervous  influence  to  act.] 

lllus.— If  the  head  of  a  turtle  be  removed  and  a  coal  of  fire  placed 
on  his  back,  as  soon  as  the  heat  affects  the  spinal  cord  he  will  begin 
to  scramble  off  as  fast  as  possible. 

[It  is  certain,  therefore,  that  the  nervous  influence  is  produced  by 
a  peculiar  state  of  some  part,  or  the  whole,  of  the  nervous  system ; 
and  whatever  produces  this  state  of  the  nervous  system  will  cause  the 
nervous  influence  to  be  produced,  and  to  act,  if  there  be  any  means. 
Hence  we  see  in  disease,  sometimes,  the  most  prodigious  feats  of 

nervous  influence  ?  What  is  inconceivable  1  What  does  the  change  in  the  blood  as  it 
is  passing  through  the  brain,  indicate1?  What  cannot  at  present  be  conjectured?  To 
what  has  it  been  compared  1  If  the  electric  influence  act  on  a  nerve,  what  is  the 
eflect  1  What,  in  this  case,  causes  contraction  of  the  muscle  ?  What  is  true  of  other 
causes?  Mention  a  very  common  cause,  productive  of  nervous  influence?  What  is 
thollltts.l  Mention  another  cause?  What  is  the  Mus.  2  What  is  certain  therefore  ? 


154  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

The  brain  greatly  benefited  by  rubbing  the  system. 

strength  performed,  and  a  variety  of  twitchings  and  jerkings  of  the 
muscles,  or  a  continued  contracted  state  of  some  or  many  of  them. 
The  disease  has  caused  that  state  of  the  nervous  system,  in  which 
nervous  influence  is  produced.  Why  it  should  be  caused  to  act 
through  certain  nerves  and  upon  certain  muscles  and  not  upon  others, 
is  an  interesting  question.  The  supposed  solution  of  it  will  be  given 
hereafter.] 

241.  When  voluntary  motion  is  caused,  the  nervous  in- 
fluence is  produced,  and  caused  to  act  in  a  particular  direc- 
tion by  the  mind. 

What  will  affect  the  Brain,  as  it  regards  voluntary  motion. 

242.  A  proper  supply  of  blood  is  required  by  the  brain. 

[What  particular  parts  of  the  blood  are  required  by  the  brain,  or 
what  quantity  of  them,  to  produce  a  given  effect,  is  not  known  with 
certainty.  As,  however,  the  brain  must  be  active  in  producing  the 
influence,  and  the  muscles  in  contracting,  nearly  at  the  same  time, 
what  would  benefit  one  ought,  it  would  seem,  to  benefit  the  other  at 
the  same  time ;  for  we  find  it  so  in  every  part  of  the  body  where 
things  are  perfectly  understood.  The  action  of  the  brain  would  pro- 
bably supply  itself  with  the  desired  quantity  of  blood  in  two  ways : 
the  changes  taking  place  in  the  substance  of  the  brain  would  attract 
more  of  the  blood  to  circulate  that  way,  and  the  contractions  of  the 
muscles  would  increase  the  flow  of  blood  through  all  parts,  and  of 
course  through  the  brain.] 

Inf.  a.— Rubbing  the  system  by  increasing  the  circulation  of  blood, 
and  repose  by  giving  time  for  the  renewal  of  the  substance  of  the 
brain,  would  be  equally  beneficial  to  that  organ,  as  the  same  things 
are  to  the  muscles. 

Inf.  b.—lf  the  brain  undergo  changes  in  the  process  of  acting,  it 
would  probably,  at  times,  be  unfitted  for  its  duties.  Of  such  a  state 
warning  should  be  given. 

[This  warning  is  probably  given  by  a  feeling  of  exhaustion,  appre- 

What  do  we  sometimes  see  in  disease?  What  has  disease  caused?  What  ia  an 
interesting  question  ?  T  241.  In  case  of  voluntary  motion,  what  causes  the  production 
of  nervous  influence  1  What  is  required  by  the  brain  ?  What  ought  to  be  the  case 
in  respect  to  the  brain  and  muscles  ?  How  would  the  action  of  the  brain  supply  itself 
with  blood  1  What  is  Inf.  a.  1  What  is  Inf.  b.  ?  How  is  a  warning  of  a  state  of  the 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  155 


Sensation  of  fatigue  should  not  be  removed  by  alcoholics,  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  &c. 

ciably  differing  from  a  feeling  of  fatigue.  It  is  felt  when  the  mind  is 
not  actively  and  favorably  disposed  to  any  exercise  taken,  and  when 
from  disease  there  is  impropriety  in  taking  exercise,  and  seems  to 
result  from  the  state  of  the  nervous  system  rather  than  from  that  of 
the  muscles.] 

Inf. — This  feeling  should  not  be  removed  by  the  use  of  alcoholics, 
tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  or  any  stimulant  or  sedative,  which  either  arouses 
the  brain  to  undue  action,  or  stifles  the  sensation  produced  by  a  brain 
requiring  repose,  but  may  with  propriety  be  removed  only  by  repose, 
rubbing,  and  those  means  which  produce  a  renewal  and  perfection  of 
the  brain. 

[This  sensation,  like  that  of  fatigue,  may  and  should  sometimes,  be 
overcome,  and  the  brain  be  caused  to  act  beyond  what  is  really 
healthful.  For  instance,  when  a  person's  life  is  in  danger :  or  when  a 
child  is  exposed  to  harm,  or  requires  a  mother's  care,  the  feelings 
of  the  parent  drown  all  sensations  of  fatigue  or  exhaustion,  and  also 
stimulate  the  brain  to  the  action  the  case  requires,  even  sometimes  to 
the  point  of  death.] 

243.  A  proper  quality  of  blood  is  required  by  the  brain. 

[What  particular  material,  and  what  precise  quantity  of  it,  is  re- 
quired by  the  brain,  is  not  known.  Inasmuch  as  the  brain  requires 
some  elements  not  requisite  to  form  the  muscles,  it  is  a  supposable 
case,  that  inability  of  the  muscles  to  perform  their  duty  may  some- 
times occur  before  it  does  in  the  brain,  and  vice  versa.  One  thing, 
however,  will  evidently  regulate  the  quantity  of  nutriment  the 
brain  will  receive  in  a  given  time,  viz. — the  quantity  of  water  in  the 
blood.] 

Inf.  —To  drink  when  a  person  is  not  thirsty  will  be  imprudent, 
and  prevent  a  powerful  exhibition  of  strength. 

244.  The  influence  of  the  Nervous  System  of  Organic 
Life  is  required  by  the  brain. 

[This  is  necessary  to  enlarge  and  diminish  its  bloodvessels,  and 
produce  its  nourishment  as  the  case  requires.] 

Inf.  a.—  The  ill  health  of  any  part  of  the  system  would  injuriously 

brain  unfit  for  action  probably  given  ?  When  is  exhaustion  felt  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  1 
When  should  this  feeling  be  overcome?  n  243.  What  kind  of  blood  is  required  by  the 
brain?  What  is  a  supposable  case  1  What  will  resrulate  the  quantity  of  nutriment 
in  the  blood  received  bynhe  brain  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  1  IT  244.  Why  is  the  nervous 
influence  of  organic  life  required  by  the  brain?  What  is  Inf.  a.  ?  What  is  Inf.  b.  ? 


156       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Importance  of  exercise  with  a  willing  mind. 

affect  the  brain,  and  lessen  its  power  in  the  production  of  voluntary 
motion. 

Inf.  b. — When  the  body  is  not  healthy,  there  ought  to  be  a  feeling 
of  exhaustion,  and  a  disinclination  to  take  exercise. 

245.  Tlte  state  of  the  Mind  has  a  great  effect  upon  the 
brain  in  the  production  of  voluntary  motion. 

Illus.  a. — A  person  has  been  sick  upon  his  bed.  not  only,  but  un- 
able, under  ordinary  circumstances,  to  raise  himself;  but  the  house 
having  taken  fire,  he  has  roused  himself,  and  worked  with  great 
energy  till  he  dropped  down  in  his  labors. 

Illus.  b. — A  mother  feels  so  tired  that  she  thinks  she  cannot  take 
another  step,  and  throws  herself  down  for  necessary  repose.  But  at 
the  first  cry  of  her  child  she  runs  to  its  aid  with  alacrity,  and  knows 
lio  fatigue  till  its  wants  are  satisfied. 

Illus.  c. —  The  action  of  the  laborer's  muscle^  is  quickened  when  he 
comes  to  the  "  last  row." 

Inf.  a.— A  cheerful,  willing,  energetic  state  of  the  mind  has  the 
most  salutary  influence  on  the  brain ;  while  a  dull,  uninterested,  mo- 
rose state  must  exert  a  baleful  influence. 

Inf.  b. — Some  means  ought  to  be  taken  to  excite  mental  interest 
in  the  exercise  or  labors  a  person  takes. 

[True,  a  dull  walk  is  better  than  no  exercise  at  all ;  but  it  does  not 
gain  all  that  is  desirable.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  to  a  person  he 
ought  to  be  interested,  &c. ;  something  must  be  done  to  produce  the 
interest  and  cause  the  desire.  If  it  cannot  be  done  one  way,  it  must 
another.  Love  for  his  children  will  make  one  man's  exercise  delight- 
ful :  love  of  reputation  affects  another.  Thus  the  woman  who  wishes 
to  have  her  family  well  supported,  must  strive  to  make  her  home  so 
happy,  and  to  use  her  means  with  such  pleasure-giving  profit,  that 
her  husband  and  children  shall  love  to  be  industrious.  The  sister 
should  strive  to  make  every  labor  of  her  brother  for  her,  prove  a  rich 
and  paying  harvest  of  happiness  to  him.  The  physician  must  study 
the  disposition  of  the  patient  he  wishes  to  have  take  exercise,  and 
recommend  that  kind,  if  possible,  which  will  gratify  him,  and  induce 
a  repetition.  The  teacher  or  professor  who  has  the  charge  of  an  in- 
dolent young  lady  or  lad  must  contrive  some  way  to  entrap,  so  to 
speak,  the  person  into  a  habit  of  exercising,  which  once  produced, 
can  by  other  motives  be  continued.  It  is  of  no  use  to  find  fault  with 
such  a  person ;  that  does  not  produce  a  willing  mind.  But  produce  a 

TJ  246.  What  effect  on  the  brain  has  the  state  of  the  mind  1    What  is  Illus.  a.  ?    What 
is  Illus.  b.  ?    What  is  Illus.  c.  ?    What  is  Inf.  a.  1    What  is  Inf.  b.  2    What  is  said  of 


HYGIENE  AND  THERAPEUTICS.  157 

Habitual  exercise  of  great  service. 

motive— a  willing  mind.    True,  it  is  a  task  sometimes,  but  it  is  well 
repaid.    The  indolent  person  is  more  to  be  pitied  than  blamed. 

246.  Habitual  exercise  is  of  great  service  to  the  Nervous 
System. 

[It  is  this  which  in  part,  or  to  a  great  degree,  gives  control  over 
every  portion  of  a  muscle,  enabling  a  person  to  be  graceful  in  his 
manner,  distinct  in  his  speech,  and  forcible  in  his  expression.  If, 
also,  the  nervous  system  have  not  been  exercised,  exhaustion  is  pro- 
duced at  the  slightest  effort,  and  exercise  becomes  a  dread.  But  by 
habitual  exercise,"  light  at  first,  gradually  increased,  there  is  such  a 
state  produced  in  the  nervous  system,  that  exercise,  instead  of  being 
dreaded,  becomes  delightful,  and  instead  of  producing  exhaustion, 
invigorates  the  brain.] 


Addenda  in  regard  to  certatn  involuntary  actions,  of  the 
Muscles,  Nerves,  and  Brain. 

/[Involuntary  action  of  those  organs  concerned  in  producing  volun- 
tary motion  is  exhibited  (m  various  ways>.  To  balance  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  in  their  proper  positions),  the  constant  action  of 
muscles  is  necessary.] 

Rlus.— rThe  mouth  is  preserved  in  the  centre  of  the  face  by  the 
balanced  action  of  the  ^muscles  of  each  side,  and  this  during  the 
night  as  well  as  the  day.) 

[This  is  proved  ^nof  only  by  the  nature  of  the  case,  but  by  the 
effects  of  accidents  or  disease,  which,  in  some  cases,  have  so  affected 
the  nerves  of  one  side  that  no  influence  could  be  exerted  upon  the 
muscles  of  that  side,  when  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  other 
side  at  once  drew  the  mouth  from  the  centre  toward  themselves,1  So 
also  in  many  other  cases(where  different  muscles  are  connected  with  a 
part,  and  a  portion  of  them  have  been  deprived  of  influence,  the  re- 
maining muscles  drew  the  part  from  its  natural  position?) 

a  dull  walk?  What  is  not  enough ?  What  must  be  done?  How  must  it  be  done? 
Whatwill  affect  one  man  ?  What  will  affect  another?  What  should  a  woman  do? 
What  should  a  sister  do  ?  What  should  a  physician  do  ?  What  should  the  teacher 
do  '\  What  is  of  no  use  1  What  should  be  produced  1  What  is  said  of  the  indolent 
person  1  IT  246.  What  gives  control  over  every  part  ofa  muscle  ?  Enabling  him  to 
be  what?  What  are  (he  effects  of  habitual  exercise  ?  tjjow  is  involuntary  motion  ex- 
hibited ?  Why  i.s  the  constant  action  of  the  muscles  necessary  ?  What  is  the  llhis.  'f 


158  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


The  evil  of  tight  dress. — Change  of  position  necessary. 

Inf.—  When  portions  of  the  body  are  drawn  from  their  natural 
place \  it  does  not  follow  that  those  muscles  that  do  it,  or  those  parts 
which  act  on  those  muscles,  are  diseased) 

[This  at  first  seems  to  refute  the  idea'that  the  muscles  need  repose! 
But  the  action  now  spoken  of  is  not  so  decided  as  the  contractions  of 
the  muscles  on  account  of  which  they  chiefly  require  repose.  But 
this  action  also  calls  for  a  frequent  change  of  position  of  the  various 
parts,  that  by  the  corresponding  contractions  and  relaxations  of  the 
muscles  there  may  be  produced  an  increased  flow  of  blood  through 
them.] 

/.»//.  a — The  muscles  of  the  chest  must  soon  suffer  very  much,  when 
by  tight  dress,  a  change  of  position  is  prevented,  and  by  pressure  the 
flow  of  blood  checked. 

Inf.  b. — Rubbing  must  be  beneficial  to  the  muscles  when  they  are 
not  actively  contracting. 

Inf.  c. — Our  position  during  the  night  ought  to  be  changed  fre- 
quently. 

[This  will  occur  unless  a  person  "sleep  too  soundly,"  and  then  he 
finds  he  has  not  reposed  perfectly.] 

Inf.  d—  Sick  persons  ought  to  be  frequently  changed  in  position. 

[This  is  for  more  than  one  reason,  for  the  pressure  upon  any  part 
when  in  bed  prevents,  to  a  degree,  the  circulation  through  it.] 

Inf.  e. — Sick  persons  should  be  frequently  rubbed. 

Inf.  f. — Infants  should  be  frequently  changed  in  position. 

[This  is  a  very  important  inference.] 

Inf.  g. — Infants  should  be  rubbed  often,  tenderly,  but  thoroughly. 

[During  the  night,  persons  while  asleep  are  frequently  known  to 
walk  about  with  perfect  regularity.  Individuals  turn  themselves 
while  asleep.  We  also  see  a  great  number  of  animals  walk  imme- 
diately after  birth.  From  all  these  and  other  similar  facts,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  many  motions  performed  every  day,  such  as  walking, 
standing,  sitting,  &c.,  are  performed  involuntarily.  That  is  to  say,  if 
a  person  wish  to  step  or  place  himself  in  any  position,  he  contracts 
the  proper  muscles  to  produce  the  desired  position,  and  at  the  same 
instant  the  contraction  of  many  other  muscles  takes  place  involun- 

How  is  this  proved  ?  What  is  true  in  many  other  cases  ?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  What 
does  this,  at  first,  seem  to  refute  1  Wherein  does  the  action  now  spoken  of  differ  from 
that  previously  mentioned 7  But  what  does  this  action  also  call  for?  What  is 
Inf.  a.  t  What  is  Inf.  b.J  What  is  Inf.  c.  ?  Does  a  person  rest  perfectly  if  he 
sleep  very  soundly?  What  is  Inf.  d.  1  What  is  Inf.  e.  1  What  is  Inf.f.  1  What  is 
Inf.  g.  1  What  may  be  frequently  seen  during  the  night?  What  may  be  noticed  in 
case  of  animals  ?  What  may  be  concluded  ?  What  takes  place  when  a  person  steps  ? 


'- 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.  159 

"To  be  a  good  orator,  a  man  must  be  a  good  man." 

tarily,  in  order  that  the  body  may  be  balanced  in  its  new  position. 
This  may  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  the  body  to  be  so  constituted, 
that  any  given  state  of  any  part  of  it,  produces  a  certain  effect  on  the 
nervous  centres,  causing  nervous  influence  to  be  produced  and  act  in 
the  necessary  direction.  Thus  any  state  of  any  part  will  be  sure  to 
cause  the  results  required.  Truly  a  most  wonderful  arrangement, 
and  distinctly  showing  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator.] 

[A  frown  is  frequently  seen  on  a  person's  brow,  or  a  smile  on  his 
lip,  which  not  only  is  involuntary,  but  which  he  cannnot  by  any  ordi- 
nary effort  restrain.  When  angry,  a  person's  voice  frequently  becomes 
loud  and  stormy,  and  his  motions  violent,  even  without  his  knowledge. 
These  and  similar  things  show  that  the  emotions  of  the  mind  being 
excited,  act  involuntarily  on  the  brain,  and  cause  action  of  that 
part,  and  consequently  of  the  muscles.  Hence  why  the  face  is  an  in- 
dex of  the  emotional  state  of  the  mind.  )  For  as  nature  did  not  in- 
tend man  for  a  hypocrite,  or  suppose  that  he  would  wish  to  be  one 
thing  and  appear  to  be  another,  she  has  arranged  it  so  in  regard  to 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  the  most  readily  seen  of  any  part  of  the  body, 
that  they  should  without  care  express  those  states  of  mind  which 
cannot  be  described  by  words,  and  which  should  be  felt  only  at  those 
times  when  a  man  should  not  be  ashamed  to  be  known  to  possess 
them.  The  saying  of  the  old  philosopher  is  therefore  a  true  one,  "  To 
be  a  good  orator  a  man  must  be  a  good  man."  The  proper  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  face  and  those  which  produce  the  gesticulation  of  the 
orator,  cannot  be  produced  without  the  emotions  exist  in  reality.  A 
good  actor  is  not  an  actor  in  the  ordinary  understanding  of  the  word. 
He  does  not  make  the  motions  merely,  of  anger,  grief,  &c.,  but  he  has 
the  power  and  uses  it,  of  producing  in  his  mind  the  emotions  of  patri- 
otism, pity,  and  the  whole  list  which  belongs  to  man.  It  is  very  im- 
portant for  the  scholar  to  understand  that  no  language,  the  force  of 
which  he  does  not  himself  feel,  can  arouse  his  audience.  His  ideas 
will  have  no  life  without  the  hearer  perceives,  by  the  mode  of  ex- 
pressing them,  that  they  have  produced  an  effect  on  the  emotions  of 
ihe  mind  that  utters  them.  Learn  then  to  feel  aright,  to  be  a  good 


How  may  this  be  accounted  for?  Are  not  ihe  ways  of  the  Creator  astonishing  7 
Can  a  person  always  restrain  a  laugh  1  What  is  seen  sometimes  when  a  person  is 
angry  '?  What  do  these  things  show  ?  How  is  the  face  an  index  of  the  mind  ?  How 
has  nature  arranged  in  respect  to  the  muscles  of  the  face  ?  What  is  necessary  to  be  a 
good  orator?  What  is  said  of  a  good  actor?  What  is  it  very  important  for  the 


160  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Irregular  action  of  the  muscle  produced  by  state  of  nervous  system. 

man,  then  learn  to  speak  as  you  feel,  and  men  shall  listen  to  you  and 
be  persuaded.] 

[Disease  will  also  produce  such  a  state  of  the  nervous  system  that 
irregular  actions  of  the  muscles  will  be  exhibited.  Twitchings  or 
jerkings  of  the  muscles  are  frequently  seen.  Sometimes  all  the  mus- 
cles cease  to  act,  and  a  person  is  very  "  flimsy,"  as  when  intoxicated. 
Sometimes  they  all  contract  with  great  power,  and  the  body  is  quite 
stiff.  Sometimes  a  large  number  of  them  are  thrown  into  violent 
contractions,  and  sudden  relaxations,  which  are  called  convulsions. 
Sometimes  a  few  only  "  twitch."-  Sometimes  intermitting  contractions 
and  relaxations  are  produced,  which  is  what  is  called  shaking  palsy  ^ 
Sometimes  a  few  contract  with  violence  and  continue  contracted,  as  in 
lockjaw.] 

Inf. — In  all  cases  of  irregular  action  of  the  muscles,  we  must  look 
for  the  cause  in  the  state  of  the  nervous  system  first,  and  secondly, 
for  the  cause  that  produces  this  state  of  the  nervous  system. 

Illus.  a. — If  we  see  a  person  staggering  about,  endeavoring  to  put 
his  foot  forward  and  it  moved  backward,  we  should  conclude  that  his 
nervous  system  was  in  a  bad  state,  and  if  upon  further  examination 
we  found  that  it  occurred  only  after  drinking  alcoholic  liquors,  we 
ought  to  infer  that  the  use  of  them  was  the  cause  of  the  harm. 

Illus.  b. — If  a  child  have  convulsions,  we  should  infer  that  the  ner- 
vons  system  was  badly  affected,  and  if  upon  further  examination  we 
found  that  convulsions  occurred  after  eating  unwholesome  food,  or  too 
much  food,  we  should  conclude  that  what  the  child  had  eaten  was  the 
cause  of  disturbance  of  the  nervous  system. 

[That  is  to  say,  if  irregular  actions  of  the  muscles  occur,  or  if 
there  be  want  of  action,  we  must  find  out  if  possible  the  circum- 
stances in  the  midst  of  which  they  occur,  and  attribute  the  cause  of 
the  evil  to  them ;  for,  as  all  parts  of  the  body  have,  as  shown  in  Part 
L,  communication  with  the  nervous  system,  the  state  of  any  part  can 
and  does  modify  the  state  of  the  nervous  system,  and  of  course,  may 
produce  such  a  condition  of  it  that  it  will  cause  any  variety  of  irregu- 
lar actions  in  the  muscular  system.] 

Inf.— When  the  causes  of  the  evil  are  known,  they  ought  carefully 
to  be  prevented  from  acting. 

scholar  to  understand?  When  will  his  ideas  have  life?  What  should  he  learn? 
What  may  be  the  effect  of  disease?  What  are  frequently  seen?  What  states  of  the 
muscles  are  mentioned  ?  Did  you  ever  see  any  person,  the  action  of  whose  muscles 
was  irregular  7  What  is  the  Inf.  1  What  is  Illus.  a.  1  What  is  Illus.  b.  1  If  there 
be  irregular  action  of  the  muscles,  what  must  we  do?  Why?  What  is  the  Inf.  ? 
What  are  the  closing  remarks  ? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  161 

People  should  always  learn  and  avoid  the  cause  of  disease. 

[This  people  are  not  always  ready  enough  to  do.  It  is  in  these 
cases  the  chief  thing  to  be  relied  on.  Sometimes  the  condition  of  the 
nervous  system  can  be  changed  by  the  action  of  medicines,  so  that 
what  now  excites  a  bad  state  of  it  will  not  do  so,  or  not  do  so  as 
readily.  But  even  then,  causes  which  are  known  to  induce  evil  ought 
to  be  just  as  carefully  guarded  against,  for  fear  of  the  effect.] 


BOOK  II. 

Organs  of  Sensation. 

247.    The  organs  of  Sensation  are,  the  Organs  of  Sense 
— the  Nerves — the  Brain. 


CHAPTEE   I. 

Organs  of  Sense. 

[Those  parts  in  which  the  nerves  commence  may  be  called  organs 
of  sense,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.] 

CLASS  FIRST. — Internal  Organs. 

248.  All  parts  of  the  body  may  be  called  internal  or- 
gans of  sense. 

[Nerves  commence  in  them  and  are  acted  upon  by  them  directly.] 

Inf. — No  particular  arrangement  is  necessary  in  order  that  the 
internal  organs  may  act  upon  the  nerves. 

249.  TJie  use  of  the  internal  organs  as  organs  of  sense  is, 
by  their  different  states,  to  act  differently  on  the  nerves,  and 
be  the  causes  of  different  sensations. 


fl  247.  What  are  the  names  of  the  organs  of  sensation  ?    H  248.  What  parts  are  in- 
ternal organs  of  sense!    IF  249.  What  is  their  use1?     What  isIUus.a.?    When  do 


HYGIENE   AND   THERAPEUTICS.  163 


Skin  as  an  organ  of  sense. 

[Thus  the  mind  is  informed  of  the  different  states  that  exist.] 

Illus.  a. — When  a  state  of  health  exists  in  an  organ  it  causes 
pleasurable  sensations.  If  it  be  injured  or  diseased,  it  causes  painful 
sensations,  that  the  attention  of  the  mind  may  be  drawn  to  its  care. 

[Sometimes,  however,  some  organs  may  be  extensively  diseased 
without  producing  pain.  This  is  when  the  pain  would  be  injurious, 
and  productive  of  no  immediate  good.] 


CLASS  SECOND. — External  Organs  of  Sense. 

250.  The  external  organs  of  sense  are  of  six  kinds ;  the 
Skin — the  Muscles — the  Mouth — the  Nose — the  Eyes — the 
Ears. 


SEC.   1. — The   Skin,  as  an  Organ  of  the  Sense  of  Touch 
and  Temperature. 

251.  The  skin  covering  the  entire  body,  and  that  also 
lining  the  mouth,  nose,  and  eyes,  is  considered  as  the  organ 
of  the  sense  of  touch  or  temperature. 

[Indeed,  by  some,  the  lining  of  the  entire  digestive  canal  and 
windpipe,  is  considered  under  the  same  head.] 

252.  The  nerves  of  touch  commence  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  skin  in  little  eminences,  called  papillae,  fig.   13. 

[Rows  of  them  may  be  seen  at  the  ends  of  the  fingers.] 

[The  portion  of  skin  external  to  the  nerves,  serves  merely  as  a 

protection  to  the  delicate  parts  within,  and  should  be  as  thin,  delicate, 

and  pliable  as  circumstances  will  permit.] 

Illus.— At  the  edges  of  the  lips  it  grows  thin,  is  very  delicate  in 

the  mouth,  nose,  and  eyes,  and  correspondingly  sensitive,  while  at  the 

sole  of  the  foot,  palm  of  the  hand,  &c.,  it  is  thick  and  "  calloused." 


not  diseased  organs  produce  pain  ?  IT  250.  What  parts  are  organs  of  sense  ?  What 
other  duties  do  these  organs  perform?  V251.  What  is  the  organ  of  the  sense  of 
touch?  Of  what  else  beside  touch  is  it  the  organ?  IT  252.  How  and  where  do  the 
nerves  commence  7  Why  would  it  not  have  been  proper  to  have  them  ;ommence  at 


164       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  slightest  chilliness  should  never  be  allowed. 

253.  Objects  act  upon  the  nerves  through   the  external 
layer,  by  their  presence  and  by  their  temperature. 

[So  exquisitely  sensitive  are  the  nerves,  that  nothing  can  touch 
the  skin  in  the  gentlest  manner,  without  producing  an  effect  upon 
them.] 

254.  The  uses  of  the  sense  of  touch  are  to  inform  the 
mind  what  part  of  the  body  is  acted  upon,  and  to  enaole  it 
by  experience,  &c.,  to  judge  of  size,  shape,  moisture,  dryness, 
&c. ;  also,  by  producing  pleasant  sensations  when  the  body 
is  exposed  to  healthful  temperatures,  and  unpleasant  sensa- 
tions when  the  body  is  exposed  to  unhealthy  temperatures, 
to  warn  the  mind  of  danger  and  reward  it  for  care. 

[Thus  the  skin  is  one  of  the  most  serviceable  organs  of  the  body. 
For  it  is  found  by  experience,  that  nothing  is  more  detrimental  to 
health  than  frequent  and  sudden  changes  of  weather.  The  reason  is, 
that  the  warnings  given  through  the  nerves  of  touch  are  not  heeded 
as  they  should  be.  Never  should  a  person  allow  himself  to  become  chilly. 
But  by  exercise,  or  clothing,  or  shelter,  or  fire,  he  should  preserve  a  feel- 
ing of  comfortable  warmth.  One  person  is  no  criterion  for  another. 
The  same  temperature  will  make  a  lean  man  shiver  that  will  not 
effect  a  fat  one.  A  person  in  ill-health  will  suffer  sooner  than  if  he 
were  well;  an  infant  cannot  bear  cold  as  a  mature  person.  After 
fatigue,  bearing  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  or  any  extreme,  after  a 
night's  watching,  a  person  will  easily  feel  chilly.  The  only  rule, 
therefore,  is,  dress  comfortably  and  avoid  chilliness.] 

[How  much,  also,  man  is  indebted  to  the  skin  for  the  happiness  he 
enjoys,  can  be  seen  by  noticing  how  fretful  and  unsocial  a  person 


the  surface  ?  What  does  the  external  portion  of  the  skin  serve  ?  What  is  the  lllus.  t 
U  253.  How  do  objects  act  upon  the  nerves  ?  IT  254.  What  are  the  uses  of  the 
sense  of  touch  1  What  is  the  comparative  importance  of  the  skin  ?  What  is  found 
by  experience  ?  What  is  the  reason  1  What  should  not  a  person  allow  ?  Why 
not  7  Will  it  not  answer  in  the  summer  time  ?  What  is  said  of  different  persons  and 
circumstances  1  Mention  some  instances  where  a  person  would  be  likely  to  err. 
What  is  the  only  rule  in  regard  to  clothing  1  What  particular  kind  of  clothing  ought 
a  person  to  wear  7  What  effect  does  chilliness  have  upon  the  disposition]  What  is 
said  in  foot  note  ?  What  effect  does  healthful  temperatures  have?  Give  some  illus- 
trations. Witt  the  same  temperatures  always  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  same  per- 
sons ?  On  different  persons  1  Why  not  ?  Illustrate.  What  is  said  of  the  complain- 


HYGIENE   AND    THERAPEUTICS.  165 

Touch  improved  by  exercise  and  rubbing. 

becomes  as  he  grows  cold,*  and,  also,  by  reflecting  how  delicious  the 
sensations  are  when  we  walk  out  in  a  balmy  day  of  spring  time  or 
summer ;  and  how  doubly  refreshing  is  a  cool  shade  after  exposure 
to  the  heat,  or  how  grateful  is  a  lire  after  exposure  to  the  cold.  The 
complaining  mind  does  not  always  think  of  these  blessings  which  we 
almost  constantly  enjoy,  and  does  not  throw  them  into  the  balance 
against  those  afflictions  that  are  like  a  mountain  piled  upon  the  other 
side.  We  do  not  often  sufficiently  adore  the  Creator  for  his  wisdom 
arid  goodness.] 

255.  The  perfect  action  of  the  nerves  of  touch  requires, 
that   the   skin  be  furnished  with  an   abundant   supply  of 
blood. 

_  Inf.—  The  sense  of  touch  will  be  benefited  by  general  exercise, 
and  thorough  rubbing  of  the  system. 

[As  the  skin  is  sometimes  exposed  to  the  cold,  and  loses  heat 
very  rapidly,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  it  will  need  to  be 
quickened,  so  also  will  it  when  the  skin  is  too  hot,  that  water  to 
evaporate  may  be  brought.] 

Inf.  a. — The  action  of  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life  will  be 
required. 

Inf.  b. — The  state  of  the  sense  of  touch  will  depend  upon  the 
health  of  the  entire  system. 

Illus. — When  a  person  has  ague,  the  bloodvessels  of  the  skin  are 
contracted  and  chilliness  is  caused.  Also,  when  a  person  is  unwell 
he  cannot  bear  ordinary  exposure. 

256.  The  perfection  of  the  organs  of  sense  and  the  nerves 
acting  therefrom,  is  affected  very  much  by  habit. 

*  We  should  always  rather  pity,  than  any  thing  else,  a  fretful  man,  for  he  makes 
himself  more  unhappy  than  he  does  any  body  else.  I  sometimes  believe  if  he  would 
for  a  moment  stop  to  think  how  unhappy  he  is,  he  would,  as  far  as  possible,  maintain 
the  opposite  state  of  mind. 


ins  mind  7  IT  255.  With  what  must  the  skin  be  furnished  7  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  What 
will  exposure  of  the  skin  to  cold  and  heat  require  1  What  is  Inf.  a.  ?  What  is  Inf. 
b.  ?  What  is  the  Illus.  1  IT  256.  What  effect  has  habit  on  the  sense  of  touch  or  tem- 
peratures 7  Illustrate  7  How  can  you  act  on  the  organ  of  the  sense  of  touch  so  as 
to  please  the  mind,  and  make  yourself  agreeable  ?  n  257.  How  do  the  muscles  pro- 


166  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   PATHOLOGY. 


Admirable  action  of  muscular  sense. 


SEC.  2. — The  Muscles,  as  Organs  of  Sense. 

257.  The  Muscles  by  their  contractions  act  on  certain 
nerves,  commencing  in  them,  and  produce  sensations. 

[When  the  muscle  is  contracted  to  one  degree,  one  effect  is  pro- 
duced, when  it  is  contracted  to  another  degree,  another  effect  '« 
caused.] 

258.  The  muscular  sense  is  of  use  to  inform  the  mind  of 
the  degree  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscle,  and  thereby,  of 
the  motion  produced,  or  the  resistance  of  the  object  acted 
upon. 

[Thus,  all  the  positions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  become 
known,  the  weights,  and  hardness  of  things,  &c.] 

Illus. — If  a  two-pound  weight  be  raised,  the  muscle  must  contract 
more  forcibly  than  if  it  raise  but  one  pound,  and  the  sensations 
being  different,  the  mind  learns  to  judge  of  weights,  &c. 

259.  The  muscular  sense  is  also  useful  by  producing 
pleasurable    sensations,  and    preventing    those    feelings    of 
languor,  ennui,  fretfulness,  &c.,  which  result  when  a  person 
has  nothing  to  do.     Thus,  labor  is  made  one  of  the  greatest 
blessings  of  life.* 

260.  The  muscular  sense  is  perfected  by  what  benefits 
the  muscle  in  other  respecliymt  especially  by  excercise. 


*  No  man  who  has  health,  a  wife,  and  an  abundance  of  children  to  love,  an  abun- 
dance of  wholesome  food  to  eat,  and  a  hearty  appetite  to  eat  it  with,  is  to  be  pitied 
because  he  is  obliged  to  labor,  and  to  labor  hard  every  day,  and  has  not  his  food  pre- 
pared by  a  French  cook.  So  far  as  the  pleasures  of  life  are  concerned,  if  he  have  a 
cultivated  and  contented  mind,  he  has  more  extravagances  than  any  body  else. 


duce  sensations  7  Explain  how.  IT  258.  How  is  the  muscular  sense  of  use  1  What 
is  the  Illus.  1  IT  259.  How  is  it  also  useful  1  What  is  the  foot  note  ?  How  is  the 
muscular  sense  perfected  1  How  can  the  mind  be  pleased  through  this  sense  ?  Illus- 
trate. IT  261.  How  commence  the  nerves  of  taste  ?  IF  262.  How  do  objects  act  unon 
them  ?  How  many  kinds  of  nerves  are  there  in  the  mouth  1  Why  must  there  be  1 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  167 


A  person  should  produce  a  relish  for  wholesome  food. 


SEC.  3.— The  Sense  of  Taste. 

261.  The  nerves  of  this  sense  commence  as  the  nerves  of 
touch,  in   the   covering   of  the    tongue,  and   the  lining  of 
different  parts  of  the  mouth. 

262.  Certain  objects  taken  into  the  mouth  act,  by  means 
of  peculiar  properties  they  possess,  upon  the  nerves  of  taste, 
and  cause  different  effects  in  case  of  different  objects. 

[Some  objects  do  not  produce  any  effect,  except  to  inform  of  their 
presence.  This  other  objects  do  and  also  an  additional  effect.  There 
must,  therefore,  be  two  kinds  of  nerves  of  different  properties  com- 
mencing in  the  mouth.] 

[How  the  nerves  are  acted  on,  is  not  known.] 

263.  TJie  use  of  this  sense  is  to  cause  the  action  of  the 
digestive  organs  to  be  increased,  and  to  change  one  of  the 
duties  of  life  to  a  pleasure. 

264.  The  perfection  of  this  sense  is  affected  very  much  by 
habit. 

Inf. — A  person  should  produce  and  continue  a  relish  for  whole- 
some food. 

[It  is  evident,  that  the  Creator  intended  man  should  enjoy  the 
taste  of  food.  And,  as  the  better  it  is  relished,  the  longer  shall  we 
chew  it,  and  the  more  thoroughly  will  it  be  mixed  with  saliva  not 
only,  but  also  the  more  will  the  saliva  flow  into  the  mouth,  and, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Dr.  Beaumont,  the  more  plentifully  will 
the  juices  of  the  stomach  flow  into  that  organ,  we  should  prepare  food 
so  that  it  shall  be  wholesome,  and  in  the  highest  degree  relishable. 
To  gain  this  end,  we  should  also  prepare  ourselves,  by  not  eating,  till 
an  appetite  has  been,  in  a  healthful  way,  produced,  and  by  taking 
exercise  to  produce  the  appetite.] 


H  263.  What  is  the  use  of  this  sense  1  How  is  it  perfected.  Illustrate.  What  is  the 
Inf.  ?  What  did  the  Creator  intend1?  Are  his  acts  always  right  1  Do  you  think  the 
Monks,  who,  in  olden  times,  secluded  themselves  from  the  pleasures  of  life,  obeyed 
God's  intentions  1  What  is  the  eflect  of  relishing  food?  What  is  the  testimony  of 


168       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


One  art  of  pleasing  the  mind. 


265.  The  art  of  pleasing  the  mind,  through  this  sense, 
is  to  combine  articles  in  a  certain  way  and  proportion,  and 
to  place  them  to  be  eaten  in  a  certain  order. 

SEC.  4.__  The  Sense  of  Smell 

266.  The  Nose  is  considered  as  the  organ  of  the  sense  of 
smell. 

267.  The  nerves  of  smell  commence  as  the  nerves  of 
touch,  just  below  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

268.  Those  objects   that  act  on  the  nerves  are  called 
odorous.     Almost  infinitely  small  particles  of  them  fly  off 
in  all  directions,  a  part  of  which  being  conveyed  through 
the  nose  with  the  air,  act  on  the  nerves  that  commence  in 
the  lining  of  the  nose. 

Fig.  63. 


Fig.  63.— Represents  a  section  of  the  nose,  parallel  with  its  natural  division.  From 
4,  a  line  reaches  down  to  the  olfactory  nerve,  or  what  is  sometimes  called  the  olfac- 
tory lobe  of  the  brain.  From  it  the  nerves  are  seen  passing  through  the  cribriform 
(sieve-like)  portion  of  the  ethmoid  bone.  The  other  portions  do  not  need  mention. 

Dr.  Beaumont?  How  should  we  produce  an  appetite?  if  265.  In  what  does  the  art 
of  pleasing  through  this  sense  consist?  it  266.  What  is  the  organ  of  the  sense  of 
smell?  H  267.  How  do  the  nerves  commence  in  it?  IT  268.  What  is  said  of  objects 
that  act  on  this  sense  ?  Describe  Fig.  63.  H  269.  What  is  the  use  of  this  sense  ? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  169 

Use  of  sense  of  smell. 

[The  particles  of  one  substance  produce  one  effect,  those  of  an- 
other, another  effect.  How  they  are  qualified  to  do  so,  cannot  at 
present  be  told.] 

269.  The  use  of  this  sense  is  to  add  to  our  pleasures,  and 
cause  the  digestion  of  food  to  take  place  more  readily. 

Illus. — The  smell  of  relished  food  will  make  the  mouth  water  even 
before  the  food  is  tasted. 

270.  The  perfection  of  this  sense  depends  on  the  lining  of 
the  nose  being  healthy,  and   freely  moistened,  and   upon 
habit. 

Illus.— When  a  person  has  a  cold  in  the  head,  he  cannot  smell. 

271.  The  art  of  the  Perfumer  in   pleasing   the  mind, 
through  this  sense,  lies  in  mingling  odorous  substances  in 
the  best  manner. 

[Flowers,  that  are  fragrant,  always  please.  Ladies  may  take  a 
hint,  in  respect  to  cultivating  flowers,  both  in  the  house  and  garden.] 


gEC.  5. — The  Sense  of  Sight. 

272.   The  Eye  is  the  organ  of  the  sense  of  sight. 

[The  external  appendages  of  the  eye.— These  are,  1st.  The  bony 
socket  by  which  it  is  protected  from  blows,  and  supported.  2d.  The 
brows,  which  shield  it  from  dust  and  perspiration.  3d.  The  eyelids, 
which  spread  the  moisture  over  it,  wipe  off  dust,  and  at  times  ex- 
clude the  light.  Their  movements  are  produced  by  a  circular  muscle 
Fig.  1,  Plate  1,  and  the  levator,  Fig.  65.  4th.  The  eyelashes,  which 
shield  the  eye  from  dazzling  light.  When  they  are  lost,  either  their 
absence  or  disease  which  caused  it,  soon  makes  the  eyes  very  sore. 
Their  loss  should,  therefore,  call  attention.  In  the  lids,  there  are 
also  some  small  glands  found.  5th.  The  tear  apparatus,  which 
consists  of  a  gland,  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow's  egg,  several 


What  is  the  Illus.  ?    H  270.  Upon  what  does  perfection  of  this  sense  depend  ?    IT  271. 
What  ia  the  art  of  the  perfumer  1    fi  272.  What  is  the  number  of  the  external  appen- 


170 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


What  should  be  done  when  the  tear  tube  is  closed. 
Fig.  64. 


Fig.  64.— A.  Represents,  but  not  correctly 
as  it  respects  form,  the  lachrymal  or  tear 
gland ;  B,  the  ducts  or  tubes  leading  from  A, 
into  the  eye  ;  C  C,  the  puncta  lachrymalia, 
or  the  openings  through  which  the  tears  flow 
from  the  eye  into  D.  the  lachrymal  or  tear- 
^^  sac,  which  opens  at  E,  into  the  nose. 


small  tubes  leading  to  the  eye,  and  tubes  leading  from  the  eye 
into  the  nose.  The  tear  fluid  is  constantly  formed  by  the  gland  and 
poured  down  to  the  eye.  At  times  much  more  is  formed  than 
at  others.  The  blood,  of  course,  must  flow  in  correspondingly  in- 
creased quantity  to  the  gland,  and  also  from  the  arrangement  of  the 
bloodvessels,  to  the  whole  head.  This  accounts  for  the  headache 
attendant  on  a  "  crying  spell."  The  action  of  the  gland  is  excited  by 
the  ordinary  state  of  the  system,  by  the  emotions,  and  by  various 
extraordinary  states  of  the  system.] 

Illus. — When  a  person  has  been  eating  mustard,  the  tears  flow. 

[The  action  of  this  gland  exhibits  the  effects  of  different  kinds  of 
nervous  influences  in  a  striking  manner — the  tubes  which  lead  from 
the  eye  to  the  nose  are  very  small,  and  liable  to  be  closed  when  a 
person  takes  cold — as  they  are  lined  by  a  continuation  of  the  lining 
of  the  nose,  as,  indeed,  is  the  entire  eye.  Sometimes  they  are  per- 
manently closed,  and  the  fluid  flows  over  upon  the  cheek ;  wiping 
this  away  soon  makes  the  eye  sore.  The  evil  should  be  remedied  by 
making  a  small  opening  with  an  instrument,  and  inserting  a  small 

dages  of  the  eye  ?  Describe  the  first  of  them.  The  second  ?  The  third  1  The 
fourth?  The  fifth?  Describe  Fig.  64.  Why  does  the  gland  require  blood ?  Didyou 
ever  feel  the  headache  from  crying?  Describe  it.  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  Why  is 
this?  Describe  the  tubes  leading  to  the  nose1?  What  evil  is  mentioned?  How 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  171 

Bathing  the  eyes  with  cold  water  a  good  thing. 

tube.  It  is  a  very  simple  and  hardly  a  painful  operation.  6th.  The 
lining  of  the  lids  and  covering  of  the  front  part  of  the  ball.  This  is 
exceedingly  delicate  throughout,  but  especially  where  it  covers  the 
front  part  of  the  eye.  It  is  very  liable  to  be  inflamed  when  a  person 
takes  cold,  eats  too  much,  does  not  take  enough  exercise,  does  not 
bathe  freely,  applies  himself  too  closely  to  his  "business  within  doors 
and  does  not  bathe  often  enough.  Of  these,  taking  cold  and  eating 
improperly  are  the  chief.  To  cure  this  state  of  the  eyes,  a  person 
must  avoid  the  producing  cause,  and  bathe  them  often  with  cold 
water.*  From  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye  hairs  sometimes  grow  up 
and  are  troublesome ;  these  and  any  others  which  annoy  the  eye 
must  be  plucked  away.  From  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye  a  red 
fleshy  substance  sometimes  grows  up  toward  the  pupil.  If  it  reach 
up  too  far.  or  be  sore,  it  should  be  removed  by  amputation.  If  it  be 
not  troublesome  it  had  better  be  left  alone.  7th.  The  Muscles. 
These  are  six  in  number. 

Fig.  65.  Fig.  65.— 1,  A  small  portion 

of  the  bottom  or  back  part  of 
the  socket  of  the  eye.  2,  The 
optic  nerve.  3,  The'eyeball.  4, 
The  levator  of  the  eyelid,  with 
eyelashes  attached.  It  is  raised 
up  from  its  natural  position— to 
show  (5)  the  superior  oblique 
passing  through  the  tendinous 
loop  (6).  7,  Being  a  continua- 
tion of  the  tendon  5.  and  is  at- 
tached to  the  eyeball  near  3. 
8,  Is  the  tendon  of  the  inferior 
oblique,  attached  to  a  piece  of 
bone  which  forms  part  of  the 
eye-socket  near  the  roots  of  the 
nose.  9,  The  superior  rectus. 

10,  The  internal  rectus.    11  12,  The  external  rectus,  with  a  portion  cut  out  that  other 
13,  The  inferior  rectus.    14,  The  edge  of  the  sclerotic,  where  it 


parts  may  be  shown. 
is  joined  to  the  cornea. 


Sometimes  one  of  them  is  too  short,  and  the  eye  is  "  turned  "  in 
that  direction.  Cutting  this  just  where  its  tendon  joins  the  eye- 
ball. will  remedy  the  evil.  Generally,  however,  when  the  eye  turns 
in,  it  is  weak,  or  in  some  way  unfit.  It  is  turned  that  it  may  not  inter- 

*  The  eyewashes  sold  at  the  shops  are  mostly  an  imposition  of  the  most  unjusti- 
fiable  character,  and  none  of  them  equal  to  cold  water. 

should  it  be  remedied  1  What  is  the  sixth  of  the  appendages  ?  To  what  is  it  liable  t 
How  should  it  be  treated  7  What  is  the  foot  note  ?  What  grows  up  in  the  eye  1  Did 
you  ever  see  what  is  referred  to  1  How  to  be  treated  ?  Describe  Fig.  65.  What  is 


172 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Sclerotic —Cornea— Choroid,  &c. 


fere  with  the  vision  of  the  other.    8th.  The  fat  surrounding  the  eye 
at  the  back  part,  serves  as  an  excellent  cushion  to  support  the  eye.] 

[The  frame  of  the  eye.    This  consists,    1st.  Of  the  Sclerotic  (hard) 
coat,  called  also  "  white  of  the  eye." 


Fig.  66. 


Fig.  66.— Represents  the  eyeball  with  the 
entering  nerve  at  the  back  part.  The  curved 
lids  are  seen  in  front,  and  the  skin  covering 
the  lids  is  observed  to  continue  round  the 
edges  of  the  lids  to  line  them,  and  then  is  re- 
flected back,  as  it  is  called,  upon  the  eyeball, 
over  the  cornea,  and  is  continuous  with  the 
lining  of  the  lower  lids. 


It  is  about  as  thick  as  pasteboard,  and  has  two  openings,  one  large  in 
front  to  admit  light,  and  one  small  one  behind  for  the  passage  of  the 
nerve.  2d.  The  Cornea.  This  is  transparent,  situated  in  the  front 
part  of  the  eyeball,  and  fitted  to  the  front  opening  of  the  sclerotic  as 
a  crystal  of  a  watch  fits  its  case.  It  is  more  prominent  than  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  white  coat  would  be,  as  can  be  perceived  through 
the  lid.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  window  of  the  eye.  The  Choroid. 
This  is  a  part  which  lines  the  white  coat,— is  not  quite  as  thick,— 
much  more  delicate,  of  a  rich  chocolate  brown  on  one  side  and  a 
perfect  black  on  the  other.  The  uses  of  the  framework  are  to  give 
form  and  protection  to  the  parts  within,  and  to  admit  the  light.  They 
are  seldom  diseased.] 

[  The  contents  of  the  Framework.  The  cornea  closes  the  front 
part  of  the  eye,  and  in  one  sense  may  be,  as  hereafter  shown,  consi- 
dered as  part  of  the  contents.  Aqueous  Humor. -^-This  is  a  liquid  fill- 
ing a  space  back  of  the  cornea.  This  space  is  partially  divided  by 
the  iris,  The  Iris  is  the  colored  part  of  the  eye.  The  hole  in  its  cen- 
tre is  called  the  pupil ;  around  the  pupil  are  circular  muscular  fibres, 
to  contract  its  size  and  exclude  light ;  while  from  the  pupil  to  the 


said  of  the  turning  in  of  the  eye?  Which  is  worst,  to  have  cross  eyes  or  a  cross  dis- 
position? What  Purpose  is  served  by  the  fat?  Describe  the  sclerotic  coat  of  the 
eye.  Describe  tb*.  ^oraea.  Describe  the  choroid  coat.  What  are  the  uses  of  tha 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


173 


Iris  muscular — Crystalline  lens. 


circumference  of  the  iris  fibres  radiate,  and  by  contracting,  enlarge 
the  pupil  and  admit  light. 

Fig.  67.  Fig.  68. 


Fig.  67.— A  front  view  of  the  iris,  showing  the  circular  fibres  about  the  pupil. 
Fig.  68.— A  back  view  of  the  iris,  showing  the  radiated  fibres. 

A  short  distance  back  of  the  iris,  a  part  called  Crystalline  Lens  is 
found. 

Fig.  69. 


Fig.  69.— Cornea  fitted  into  the  sclerotic  coat.  A,  Choroid.  B,  Pigmentum  nigrum. 
C,  Retina,  lined  by  the  hyaloid  membrane,  containing  (K)  the  vitreous  humor.  D, 
The  optic  nerve.  I,  The  lens.  G,  Iris,  coated  on  the  back  side  with  pigment  (paint). 
H,  Ciliary  processes.  F,  Aqueous  humor. 


framework  1  Describe  the  aqueous  humor.  Describe  the  iris.  Describe  Figs.  67 
and  68.  Describe  the  crystalline  lens.  Describe  Fig.  69-  Will  you  draw  it  on  the 
black-board!  Describe  the  vitreous  humor.  What,  m  one  respect,  is  the  character  of 


174 

Optic  nerve.    Light  of  three  kinds. 

This,  like  an  onion,  is  composed  of  concentric  layers,  and  is  much 
move  dense  at  its  centre  than  at  its  circumference.  The  Vitreous 
Hnmor.-?Fh\s  is  a  fluid  contained  in  the  cells  of  a  very  delicate  mem- 
brane, called  the  hyaloid.  It  fills  all  the  back  part  of  the  eye,  and  at  its 
front  part  receives  the  back  part  of  the  lens,  which  however  is  not 
attached  to  it.  From  the  cornea  to  the  back  part  of  the  eye  all  parts 
are  exceedingly  pellucid  when  in  health^.  Disease  sometimes  causes 
them  to  become  opaque.  When  this  is  'the  case  with  the  lens,  a  per- 
son is  said  to  have  a  cataract,  and  the  lens  must  be  removed  by  an 
operation.  After  this,  for  weeks  the  eye  must  be  protected  from  the 
action  of  strong  light,  to  which  it  must  be  gradually  accustomed. 
One  single  exposure  sometimes  destroys  the  eye~J 

273.  The  Optic  (to  see  ivith)  Nerve  commences  from  a 

thousand  millions  of  points,  al- 
most infinitely  near  each  other, 
at  the  outer  surface  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  back  portion  of 
the  Vitreous  Humor,  where 
they  constitute  what  is  called 
the  Retina.  From  these  points 
they  may  be  followed  along 
the  circumference  of  the  hu 

mor  to  their  place  of  exit,  where  they  are  all  inclosed  in  a 

single  sheath,  and  find  their  way  to  the  brain. 

274.  'By  means  of  Light,  objects  act  on  the  nerve  through 
the  parts  that  are  in  front  of  it\ 

[Light  is  of  three  distinctly  different  kinds.  If  one  kind  alone  act 
on  a  nerve,  it  will  produce  a  sensation  of  red.  If  another  kind,  a  sen- 
sation of  yellow  will  be  caused.  If  another,  a  sensation  of  blue. 
Hence  the  three  kinds  of  light  are  called  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  If 
the  two  last  act  together  on  the  same  nerve;,  a  different  sensation  from 
what  would  be  produced  by  either  alone,  will  be  the  result,  viz. — a 


all  the  internal  parts  of  the  eye!  What  is  said  of  cataract?  IT  273.  Describe  the 
optic  nerve,  fl  274.  By  what  are  the  nerves  acted  on  1  What  effect  do  the  different 
kinds  of  light  produce  1  What  effect  do  two  kinds  acting  together  produce  ?  What 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  175 

What  the  color  of  an  object,  depends  upon. 

sensation  of  green.  The  light  which  is  thus  produced  is  spoken  of  as 
green,  as  if  it  were  of  but  one  kind.  This  is  because  the  two  kinds 
acting-  together  produce  but  one  sensation.  Such  sensations,  though 
simple,  are  spoken  of  as  compound,  because  produced  by  compound 
light.  If  two  kinds  be  compounded  in  different  proportions,  and  in 
different  proportions  act  on  the  eye,  different  sensations  will  be  pro- 
duced. ...If  the  three  kinds,  in  proper  proportions,  act  on  the  nerve, 
they  will  cause  a  single  sensation  of  white,  and  hence  they  are  called 
white  light,  'When  no  light  at  all  acts  on  the  nerve,  the  state  it  is  in 
will  cause  a  sensation  of  black.)/  Thus  all  the  sensations  of  color  that 
can  be  produced  result  from  the  three  kinds  of  light  acting  in  vary- 
ing proportions  on  the  nerves.] 

[Some  objects  produce  liglit.  \T_he  light  coming  from  these  and 
acting  upon  nerves,  produce  effects,  and  the  objects  are  termed  ac- 
cordingly.] 

Illus.-(-Tl\e  sun,  the  great  fountain  of  light,  produces  light  of  three 
kinds,  and  in  such  proportions  as  to  cause  the  sensation  of  white ; 
and  we  say  the  sun  is  white,  because  the  light  coming  from  it  pro- 
duces the  sensations  of  whiteness.] 

[How  objects  whuh  do  not  produce  light,  act  upon  it.  They  may  pro- 
duce one  or  two  of  three  different  effects.  1st.  They  may  reflect 
it.  By  reflect  is  meant,  to  send  it^off.  or  bend  it  back,  as  a  ball  is 
senfrliack  by  the  wall  it  strikes  upon.  ;They  may  reflect  one.  two,  or 
three  kinds,  as  represented  by  Figs.  13,  12,  11,  9,  PI.  5.  They  may 
also  reflect  varying  proportions  of  three  kinds,  and  thus  cap  cause 
light  to  produce  all  possible  kinds  of  sensations  of  color.  2d.  Objects 
may  absorb  it,  as  represented  by  Fig.  10,  which  absorbs  all;  by  Fig. 
11.  which  absorbs  but  two  kinds.  &c.  3d.  Qertain  objects  transmit 
(like  a  piece  of  glass)  liglit. )  Some  transmit  one  kind,  some  another, 
and  thus  are  able  to  cause  light  to  produce  all  possible  sensa- 
tions of  color.  -Thus  the  color  of  an  object  depends  upon,  and  is,  the  power 
of  an  object  to  reflect,  absorb,  or_  transmit  light  of  three  different  kinds.] 

[Tlie  direction  of  Light.  It  always  passes  in  straight  lines,  till  it 
is  bent.  'This  occurs  when  it  passes  from  one  substance  to  another  of 
different  density,  in  an  oblique  (slanting)  direction  to  its  surface. 


the  three  1  When  no  light  acts  1  How  are  all  sensations  of  color  produced  ?  What 
is  paid  of  the  sun  ?  What  is  meant,  by  reflecting  light ?  How,  by  reflection,  do  objects 
cause  all  kinds  of  sensation  of  color?  What  is" meant  by  absorb?  What  is  meant  by 
transmit?  Illustrate.  Upon  what,  does  the  color  of  objects  depend?  How  does 


176        ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Long-sighted  eye.    Short-sighted  eye. 

After  it  is  bent  it  passes  in  a  straight  line  till  bent  again  in  a  similar 
manner. 

Fig.  71. 


Fig.  71.—  a  b  c,  Represents  rays  of  light  which  pass  through  the  piece  of  glass  (c) 
without  being  bent  as  they  fall  perpendicular  upon  the  glass  (c).  But  as  they  fall  upon 
the  lens  (L),  in  a  direction  not  perpendicular  to  its  surface,  they  are  bent  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  they  all  cross  each  other  at  the  point  M,  which  is  called  the  focus,  beyond  the 
focus  the  rays  spread  farther  from  each  other. 

[  The  light  is  bent  by  me  parts  of  the  eye  in  front  of  the  nerve.  .Thus 
the  light  from  different  objects  is  caused  to  act  on  the  points  of  differ- 
ent nerves;  )for  as  the  light  is  bent  or  refracted  by  certain  rules,  the 
light  coming  from  two  objects  can  never  by  the  same  thing  be  bent 
to  the  same  point.  Thus  -'as  many  different  sensations  can  be  pro- 
duced as  there  are  nerves  aild  objects  to  cause  light  to  act  upon  them, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  2,  PI.  5.]  ') 

[The long-sighted  eye.  (Sometimes  the  light  is  not  bent  sufficiently 
by  the  eye,  and  when  it  reaches  the  nerve  it  acts  upon  several  of  them, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  3,  PI.  5.] 

[The  short-sighted  eye.  Sometimes  the  light  is  bent  too  much,  and 
when  it  reaches  the  nerve  it  acts  upon  several  of  them,  as  seen  by 
Fig.  4.  PI.  5.  (  In  both  cases  the  trouble  is  the  same,  though  pro- 
duced by  different  causes.  In  the  first  place,  sufficient  light  to  pro- 
duce an  intense  effect  does  not  act  on  a  single  nerve.  In  the  second 
place,  the  light  from  several  objects  acts  on  the  same  nerves,  and 
through  them  would  cause  compound  sensations  of  course,  as  seen 
by  Fig.  4  arid  3,  PI.  5.] 

*  How  exceedingly  incorrect  then  it  must  be  to  talk  of  seeing  by  means  of  any 
other  part  of  the  body  than  the  eye.  Since  that,  when  but  a  little  imperfect,  produces 

light  pass?  De-mho  Fig.  71.  When  is  light  bent?  Whnt  parts  of  the  eye  bend 
light  ?  How  is  light  thus  caused  to  act  ?  How  many  different  sensations  can  "be  pro- 
duced ?  What  causes  long  sight  7  What  causes  short  sight  1  What  is  said  of  both 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS  177 


Changes  in  the  eye  adapt  it  to  seeing  objects. 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  72,— A  A,  A  lens  by  which  the  light  passing  from  a',  is  bent  to  a,  while  if  the 
object  producing  lieht  be  moved  to  b,  the  light  coming  from  a  more  distant  point  is 
bent  to  a  nearer  pofnt  on  the  opposite  side,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

[Experiment  shows  that  light  coming  from  objects  at  different 
distances  will  be  differently  bent  by  the  same  lens)  The  eye,  how- 
ever, is  so  constituted  as  to  be  changed  in  its  condition,  when  perfect, 
so  as  to  cause  light  coming  from  distant  objects,  or  from  near  ones, 
to  be  so  bent,  as  to  act  on  a  single  nerve).  In  some  persons,  this  is  not 
the  case  ;  hence,  long-sighted  persons,  viz.,  gipse  in  whose  eyes  only 
the  light  coming  from  any  point  of  a  distant  object,  is  so  bent  as  to 
act  on  a  single  nerve,  and  short-sighted  persons,  viz..  those  in  whose 
eyes,  only  the  light  coming  from  near  objects  is  bent  so  as  to  act 
on  single  nerves.  ^Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  power  by  which  this 
change  of  the  eye  is  wrought  is  not  known,  neither  is  the  particular 
use  of  any  one  of  the  internal  parts  of  the  eye. ;  Many  suppositions 
have  been  made,  but  none  have  proved  correct.* 

a  blur,  or  confusion  of  objects,  what  would  be  the  effect  if  the  eye  were  altogether 
taken  away,  and  the  light  from  ten  thousand  objects  allowed  to  pour  upon  all  the 
nerves  at  once  1  Objects  could  not  be  distinguished,  for  they  would  not  produce  distinct 
sensations.} 

*  One  thing  is  certain,  the  eye  is  not  long-sighted  or  short-sigRted  on  account  of  the 
flatness  or  fulness  of  the  cornea. 

The  reader  may  ask,  what  is  meant  by  an  object  1  To  the  eye,  that  is  an  object 
which  produces  a  distinct  sensation  of  color.  A  map  of  24  different  connected  colors 
would  be  to  the  eye  24  objects.  If  two  sensations  of  the  same  color  be  produced 
through  two  contiguous  nerves,  they  are  considered  by  the  eye  as  produced  by  one 
object.  If  they  are  produced  through  two  nerves,  not  contiguous,  they  are  considered 
as  produced  by  two  objects.  Thus  to  the  eye  objects  may  be  exceedingly  small,  or 

cases?  What  is  the  first  evil  ?  Second,  what?  Describe  Fig.  3  and  4,  PI.  5.  What 
is  foot  note  ?  Describe  Fig.  72.  What  does  experiment  show  ?  How  is  the  eye  con- 
stituted ?  Who  are  long-sighted  ?  Who  are  short-sighted  ?  What  is  strange  ?  What 
is  said  in  the  foot  note  ?  What  is  an  object  ?  Describe  Fig.  73.  How  does  light  act? 


178  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

The  direction  of  objects  learned  by  means  of  light. 

Fig.  73. 


Fig.  73. — A  B,  Represents  two  points,  of  which  there  may  be  millions.  From  A  By 
the  light  falls  upon  the  cornea,  c  c,  and  is  bent  as  it  is  passing  into  the  eye.  D,  is  (he 
iris ;  E  E,  the  lens,  the  small  spot  at  which  the  central  rays  or  axes  from  A  and  B 
pass,  being  called  the  centre  of  the  lens.  After  the  light  leaves  the  lens  it  is  observed 
to  cross  at  the  retina  (a  d),  while  if  the  retina  had  been  as  far  distant  as  G,  or  only  as 
far  distant  as  H,  the  light  would  have  acted  over  considerable  space. 

[The  direction  of  objects  learned  by  means  of  light. — As  light  acts  by 
immutable  laws)  the  eye  may  be  so  constituted  as  to  place  con- 
fidence in  its  action  ;  and  sensations  may  be  generally  relied  on  with 
safety.  We  are  therefore  so  constituted  as  to  believe  that  the 
object  is  in  that  direction  whence  light  must  come  to  act  on  a  given 
nerve,  when  the  eye  is  perfect.  Thus,  if  we  believe  that  the  object 
from  which  the  light  has  come  to  act  on  figure  B,  is  in  a  straight  line, 
drawn  from  a  through  o.  we  shall  be  correct.  And  if  we  believe  that 
the  object  whence  light  has  come  to  act  at  b.  is  in  a  straight  line 
drawn  from  b  through  o.  we  shall  be  correct.  One  trouble  with  the 
near-sighted  and  long-sighted  eye  is.  that  the  direction  of  objects  is  not 
distinctly  perceived,  and  the  old  lady  puts  her  thread  first  one  side, 
then  the  other,  of  the  eye  of  her  needle;  so  also  does  the  near-sighted 
person,  as  exhibited  by  Fig.  74.*] 

quite  large.  In  another  sense,  an  object  of  large,  or  small  size,  may  be  considered  as 
composed  of  as  many  objects  as  there  can  be  distinguished  directions,  in  which  the 
light  came  to  the  eye. 

*  It  is  sometimes  said  and  taught  that  we  know  the  direction  of  an  object  from 
experience  ;  this  cannot  be  so.  We  also  see  and  hear  much  about  images  in  the  eye, 
and  inverted  images,  &c.  The  cause  of  this  confusion  of  the  process  of  seeing  is, 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


179 


Why  objects  are  indistinct.— Uses  of  the  sense  of  sight. 


Fig.  74. 


Fig.  74. — Represents  the  long- 
sighted eye.  From  the  nerve 
afc  the  object  will  appear  to  be 
at  B.  From  the  nerve  at  b  it  will 
appear  to  be  at  0.  And  as  the 
light  from  A  will  act  on  all  the 
nerves  from  b  to  c,  the  candle  will 
appear  to  occupy  all  the  space 
between  B  and  C— appearing 
bright  in  the  centre  and  hazy  all 
around. 


Fig.  75.— Short-sighted  eye. 
Here  the  candle  will  appear  to 
occupy  all  the  space  between  1J 
and  C,  since  all  the  nerves  be- 
tween b  and  c  are  acted  on. 


275.  The  uses  of  the  sense  of  sight  are  to  distinguish  the 
colors  of  objects,  one  object  from  another,  and  the  direction 
of  objects  from  the  eye,  to  produce  pleasurable  sensations 
when  it  is  acted  upon  in  accordance  with  its  health,  and  to 
warn  by  unpleasant  ones  when  it  is  suffering. 

that  those  who  have  examined  the  eye  have  stood  outside  it,  so  to  speak,  instead  of 
going  behind  it,  and  using  it ;  and  have  then  thought  a  man  as  much  at  a  loss  to  know 
whenf  3  light  came,  as  they  were  themselves. 

Fig.  76. 


In  this  figure,  the  observing  eye  will  believe— for  it  is  so— that  the  light  reflected 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  eye  comes  from  above  the  light  reflected  from  the  lower 
.part  of  the  eye.  For  the  same  reason  precisely,  the  eye  observed  upon  will  believe 
that  the  light  coming  from  (T,  comes  from  above  L.  People  likewise  talk  about  seeing 


180  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

The  three  natural  colors  please  the  eye. 

276.  To  preserve  a  perfect  state  in  the  eye}  it  must  be 
supplied  with  a  proper  quantity  of  blood,  and  be  acted  upon 
by  various  kinds  of  light  at  the  same  time,  or  in  immediate 
succession,  and  it  must  be  practised  by  looking  at  objects 
both  near  and  distant. 

[Too  diligent  application  of  the  mind  to  study,  and  too  little  exer- 
cise, frequently  cause  a  bad  state  of  the  eye,  its  bloodvessels  become 
too  much  charged  with  blood,  the  throbbing  and  motions  of  which, 
cause  appearances  of  specks  of  various  shapes  before  the  eyes. 
Flashes  of  light,  and  objects  of  various  colors  before  the  eye  are 
caused  by  the  same  improper  course  of  life.  Looking  constantly  at  ob- 
jects of  any  one  color,  exhausts  the  power  of  the  eye.  which,  there- 
fore, is  pleased  with  a  variety  of  colors.  Those,  however,  the  com- 
bination of  which  produce  white  are  the  most  perfect  in  their  action 
on  the  eye,  and,  therefore,  most  pleasing  through  it.  The  short- 
sighted eye  is  frequently  produced  by  using  the  eye  too  exclusively 
upon  near  objects.  The  eye  loses  for  want  of  practice  the  power  of 
adapting  itself  to  the  action  of  light  from  distant  objects  ;  this,  how- 
ever, can  be  regained  to  a  great  degree  or  wholly,by  perseverance  for 
a  sufficient  time  in  endeavoring  to  see  distant  objects.  Sailors  from 
looking  much  at  distant  objects  frequently  become  long-sighted.] 

277.  T/ie  art  of  pleasing  the  mind  through  this  sense, 
consists  in  placing  before  the  eye  various  colored  objects, 

the  image  in  the  glass,  &c.,  but  when  a  person  looks  toward  the  glass  he  sees  the  ob- 
jects themsel^e?  just  as  truly  as  if  he  were  looking  toward  them.  If,  for  instance,  he 
hold  a  candle  before  a  mirror,  the  light  passes  from  the  candle  to  the  mirror,  thence 
to  his  eye,  and  the  same  effect  is  produced  as  when  he  looks  toward  the  candle  ;  indeed, 
the  same  identical  light  acts  upon  him  in  one  case  as  the  other,  only  it  has  been  bent 
in  its  direction.  We  must  be  careful,  therefore,  not  to  allow  our  minds  to  be  led 
astray  by  the  common  use  of  language.  As  the  eye  is  so  necessary  to  distinguish  the 
direction  of  objects  from  each  other,  it  is  the  height  of  inconsistency  to  believe  a  per- 
son can  see  with  any  other  part  of  the  body  than  the  eye ;  for  if  the  nerve,  with  an 
imperfect  eye,  is  productive  of  such  incorrect  sensations,  and  cannot  inform  the  mind 
where  precisely  the  eye  of  a  needle  is,  what  could  it  do  if  the  eye  were  away  1 

What  frequently  causes  bad  states  of  the  eye  ?  What  exhausts  the  power  of  the  eye  ? 
\\'hnt  combinations  of  color  produce  whitel  How  is  short  sight  frequently  pro- 
duced? How  can  it  usually  be  more  or  less  corrected?  In  what  does  the  art  of 
pleasing  through  this  sense  consist  1  Where  may  much  more  useful  and  inreiesting 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  181 

The  art  of  pleasing  the  mind  through  the  eye. 

the  combined  light  from  which,  will  produce  sensations 
of  white.  Hence,  the  beauty  of  flowers,  the  rainbow,  and 
many  other  natural  objects,  especially  the  splendor  of  the 
clouds. 

[A  lady  in  respect  to  her  dress,  and  what  is  adapted  to  her  com- 
plexion, and  in  respect  to  the  furniture  of  her  house,  carpets,  paper, 
&c.,  may  take  a  hint  herefrom.*] 


SEC.  6. — Tlie  Sense  of  Hearing. 

278.   TJie  Ear  is  the  organ  of  the  sense  of  hearing. 

[  Various  parts  of  the  ear.  Of  the  external  ear  nothing  need  be 
said.  1st.  The  external  tube. — This  leads  into  the  head  about  half  an 
inch  to  one  inch.  Its  sides  are  kept  in  good  condition  by  a  supply  of 
ear-wax.  It  sometimes  hardens  and  produces  hardness  of  hearing. 
"  It  should  be  softened  by  a  few  drops  of  sweet  oil,  and  the  tube  then 
syringed  out  with  Castile  soap  and  warm  water.f  TJie  external  mem- 
brane.—This  is  stretched  across  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  The  drum.— 
This  is  a  place  about  the  size  and  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  kidney 
bean,  found  inside  the  membrane  and  filled  with  air.  From  the  bottom 
of  it  a  tube  extends  downward  and  forward,  and  opens  trumpet- 
mouthed  into  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  nostril.  It  is  called 
Eustachian  tube.  The  bones.— These  are  four  in  number,  exceedingly 
small  connected  by  movable  joints  with  each  other,  and  stretched 
across  the  drum  from  the  external  membrane  to  the  internal  mem- 
brane at  the  inside  of  the  drum.  The  mastoid  cells.— These  are  cells 
in  the  bone  felt  just  back  of  the  ear.  Tlie  lining  of  the  Arum. — The 

*  For  much  more  matter  upon  the  eye,  of  an  interesting  and  useful  character,  see 
Popular  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  and  Muller's  Physiology. 

t  The  ear-oils  sold  at  the  shops  are  usually  the  most  barefaced  impositions.  None 
are  any  better  than  sweet  oil,  and  some  much  worse.  There  is  not  much  hope,  how- 
ever, that  any  oil  or  other  application  made  to  the  tube,  will  cure  deafness. 


matter  be  found  1  Does  the  eye  seem  to  be  an  important  organl  Will  it  be  well  for 
us  to  understand  it  thoroughly  ?  11278.  What  is  said  of  the  hardening  of  ear-wax? 
Describe  the  external  membrane.  The  drum.  The  Eustachian  tube.  The  bones. 
The  mastoid  cells.  The  internal  membranes.  The  labyrinth.  The  aqueous  hu- 


182 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Vibrations  of  air  cause  hearing. 


Fig.  76. 


Fig.  76.  —  The  bone  of  the  ear.  1,  Malleus  (hammer).  2,  The  upper  one  is  called 
incus  (anvil),  the  lower  one  orbicularis  (round).  3  Stapes  (stirrup). 

lining  of  the  nose  is  continued  up  through  the  Eustachian  tube,  the 
drum  and  the  mastoid  cells.  The  internal  membranes.  —  These  cover 
two  openings  leading  from  the  diura  to  the  labyrinth.  This  is  a  curi- 
ously shaped  part,  curiously  lined,  and  in  health  filled  with  a  limpid 
fluid  called  the  aqueous  humor  of  the  ear.  With  so  many  parts,  of 
such  different  structures  and  modes  of  action,  it  is  a  wonder  that 
hardness  of  hearing  is  not  more  common  than  it  is.] 

279.  TJie  nerves  of  hearing  (auditory)  commence  at  the 
internal  surface  of  the  lining  of  the  labyrinth. 

[Whatever,  therefore,  acts  on  the  fluid  of  the  labyrinth  can  act  on 
the  nerves.  The  internal  membrane  can  do  that.  The  bones  can  act 
on  one  of  them.  The  external  membrane  can  act  on  the  bones.  The 
air  can  act  on  the  membrane  ;  and  objects  by  vibrating  can  act  on 
the  air.] 

280.  Objects  act  <s?i  the  nerves  of  hearing  by  vibrating, 
and  thus  causing  waves  in   the   air.  which  act  on  the  mem- 
brane, from  which  an  effect  is   communicated  to  the  nerves, 
as  is  evident  may  be  the  case. 

[Different  objects  vibrate  differently,  and  thus  produce  different 
waves  in  the  air,  and  ultimately  different  effects  on  the  nerves.] 

281.  The  uses  of  this  sense  are,  by  experience  to  enable 
us  to  distinguish   objects  and  their    direction   from  us,  to 


mor.  What  is  a  wonder?  ^  279.  Where  do  the  nerves  of  hearing  commence'? 
If  280.  How  do  objects  act  on  the  nerves  of  hearing?  if  281.  What  are  the  uses  of  this 
cense?  What  was  proper  in  respect  to  this  organ?  Why?  What  is  said  of  a  tone 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  183 

Sweet  tones  of  voice  produce  a  pleasant  disposition. 

enable  us  to  receive  ideas  from  our  fellows.  It  is  also 
exceedingly  useful  to  warn  us  of  impending  danger,  and 
rouse  the  mind  to  immediate  action.  It  excites  the  emotions 
in  a  most  remarkable  degree,  and  to  the  ear  are  we  indebted 
for  all  the  charms  of  music. 

[As  it  is  through  this  organ  that  we  are  called  to  give  others  as- 
sistance and  made  to  know  their  necessities,  it  was  proper  that  the 
emotions  should  be  powerfully  acted  upon  by  certain  tones  addressed 
to  the  ear,  and  that  we  should  be  lulled  into  security  by  tones  of 
sweetness.  A  tone  of  a  word  has  been  made  to  speak  more,  some- 
times, than  a  volume  could  say,  of  the  state  of  the  speaker's  mind  and 
disposition.  It  is  natural  for  certain  tones  to  wake  up  certain  feel- 
ings, and  promote  certain  states  of  the  disposition.] 

////. — A  child  should  be  always  treated  kindly,  and  should  never 
hear  impatient  tones. 

282.  This  sense  is  preserved  in  a  perfect  state  by  avoid- 
ing to  take  cold  and  over-action  of  the  nervous  system. 

[The  lining  of  the  nose.  Eustachian  tube,  the  drum  and  the  mas- 
toid  cells  being  the  same  in  structure,  when  a  person  takes  cold  and 
has  an  affection  of  the  lining  of  the  nose  produced,  very  frequently  it 
extends  to  the  ear  as  well.] 

Illus. — Those  who  are  hard  of  hearing  are  more  so  when  they 
take  cold. 

[When  the  blood  is  circulating  too  actively  to  the  brain,  the  throb- 
bing and  motions  of  it  arc  apt  to  produce  ringings  of  the  ears,  &c., 
the  remedy  for  which  is.  to  avoid  the  causes  which  produce  it,  of 
which  often,  taking  cold  is  a  prominent  one.] 

The  art  of  pleasing  the  mind  through  this  sense,  is  to 
address  the  ear  with  bland  and  winning  tones,  and  with 
sweet  melodies,  or  on  the  other  hand  to  stir  up  the  feelings 
with  majestic  notes. 

of  a  word?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  H  282.  How  is  this  sense  preserved  in  a  perfect  state? 
What  is  said  of  the  lining  of  the  ear?  What  is  the  Illus.  ?  Why  is  scarlet  fever, 
irlirnritlended  by  sore  throat,  very  likely  to  cause  deafness?  What  is  the  art  of 
pleasing  the  mind  through  this  sense  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  music?  Does  the  music 
a  person  makes  please  his  own  mind  through  his  own  ear?  Ought  every  one  who 
can,  to  learn  to  play  musical  instruments,  and  to  sing?  Ought  everyone  to  cultivate 


184 

Different  nerves  are  differently  constituted. 

Inf. — As  expression  depends  upon  the  mind,  the  true  art  of  pleas- 
ing through  the  ear,  is  to  "  cultivate  a  noble  state"  of  the  soul,  which 
shall  always  cause  tones  of  "  good  will  to  man"  to  fall  from  the  lips.* 

CHAPTEB   II. 

Nerves  of  Sensation, 

283.  TJie  different  nerves  of  sensation  have  something 
peculiar  in  their  constitution,  on  account  of  which  each  one 
produces  only  one  class  of  sensations. 

[In  general  appearance  they  are  alike,  but  when  the  same  causes 
act  on  the  same  nerves,  different  results  are  produced.] 

Illus.  a. — If  one  part  of  the  skin  be  gently  touched,  a  tickling  sen- 
sation is  produced,  if  another  part  of  the  skin  be  acted  on  in  the  same 
manner,  no  such  result  is  perceived. 

Illus.  b. — If  the  head  receive  a  severe  jar  by  falling,  it  causes  a 
sensation  of  sound  through  the  nerve  of  hearing,  and  of  sparks  of 
light  through  the  nerve  of  sight. 

Illus.  c. — If  a  nerve  of  a  tooth  be  pricked,  pain  of  one  kind  is  pro- 
duced, and  another  kind  by  pricking  the  finger. 

Illus.  d. — If  electricity  be  caused  to  act  through  the  nerves  of  sen- 
s»tion,  it  will  cause  different  effects  through  each. 

284.  The  constitution  of  the  nerves  of  some  persons   is 
different  from  that  of  others. 

Illus.  a. — Some  persons  cannot  be  tickled. 

Illus.  b. — Some  persons  cannot  see  certain  colors  at  all.  Some  see 
two  different  colors  to  be  alike. 

[That  is,  two  different  kinds  of  light  in  some  persons,  produce  the 
same  effect.] 

285.  The  nerves  are  differently  constituted  at  their  com- 
mencing points  from  the  rest  of  their  extent. 

*  For  a  more  particular  and  interesting  description  of  the  ear,  &c.,  see  Popular 
Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

a  melodious  voice  as  far  as  is  in  his  power?  What  is  the  Inf.  ?  H  283.  How  many 
kinds  of  sensations  does  one  kind  of  nerves  produce?  What  is  Illus.  a.  ?  What  is 
Itlus.  b.7  Illus.  c.1  Shis,  d.?  IT  284.  Are  the  nerves  of  all,  alike?  Illus.  a.? 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  185 

Wise  arrangement  in  respect  to  the  nerves. 

[For  a  muscle  which  is  traversed  by  a  nerve  produces  through  it 
no  sensations,  only  through  the  one  commencing  in  itself.  If  the  foot 
be  cold,  it  causes  a  sensation  which  is  not  affected  by  the  state  of 
warmth  of  the  parts  in  which  the  nerve  is  situated  between  the  foot 
and  brain.  How  the  nerve  is  constituted  so  as  to  receive  at  its  com- 
mencement the  action  of  its  own  peculiar  class  of  objects,  is  not 
known.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  nerves  were  constituted  with  re- 
gard to  the  nature  of  objects,  as  much  as  objects  with  regard  to  the 
nature  of  the  nerves.*] 

286.  Tlie  perfect  state  of  the  nerves  is  preserved  by  proper 
exercise  and  repose. 

[If  the  nerve  of  the  eye  be  for  a  long  time  acted  upon  by,  for  in- 
stance, red  light,  when  turned  to  a  white  object  it  will  appear  green. 
The  continued  action  of  the  red  light  has  unfitted  the  nerve  for  the 
longer  action  of  that  kind  of  light,  and  time  must  be  allowed  for  some 
changes  to  take  place  in  the  nerve.] 

287.  The  nerves  are  also  benefited  by  a  healthy  state  of 
every  part  of  the  body. 

[It  has  been  wisely  ordered  that  disease  of  any  part  shall  rarely 
affect  any  nerve  extending  through  it.  A  wonderful  provision.  But 
disease  of  any  organ,  or  of  the  whole  body,  is  apt  on  the  one  hand  to 
make  the  nerves  very  sensitive  and  easily  acted  on,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  make  them  torpid.] 


CHAPTER    III. 

The  Brain,  as  an  Organ  of  Sensation. 
288.   The  Brain  is  a  part  through  which  the  nerves  affect 

*  Since  only  the  nerves  of  sight  have  been  constituted  to  be  acted  upon  by  light, 
and  cause  a  sensation  of  sight,  it  is  needless  to  inquire,  or  experiment,  to  test  whether 
a  person  sees  through  the  top  of  the  head,  pit  of  the  stomach,  &c. 

IIlun.  />.  ?  IT  2S5.  Are  the  nerves  alike  throughout?  How  is  this  shown?  What 
is  the  foot  note  ?  u  280.  How  is  a  perfect  state  of  the  nerves  preserved  1  How  is  this 
shown?  li '287.  How  are  the  nerves  also  benefited?  What  has  been  wisely  ordered? 
Explain  why  this  is  so  admirable.  Tl  288.  In  respect  to  sensation,  what  is  the  brain  "J 


186  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Health  necessary  that  correct  sensations  may  be  produced. 

the  mind,  and  also  an  organ  of  sense,)so  to  speak,  viz.,  it  is 
itself  acted  upon  by  the  mind,  and  caused  to  produce  sensa- 
tions. 

[Some  believe,  and  I  think  correctly,  that  those  parts  of  the  brain 
through  which  the  nerves  affect  the  mind,  are  in  fact  the  inner  ex- 
tremities of  the  nerves  themselves.;  How  else  could  the  mind  know 
through  what  particular  nerve  a  sensation  was  produced  1  In  what 
particular  part  of  the  brain,  or  by  what  operation  the  sensations  are 
produced,  Ave  have  not  the  remotest  idea.  All  that  can  be  said  is, 
that  certain  states  being  produced  in  the  brain,  it  will  tend  to  produce 
certain  results  or  sensations.  The  causes  which  produce  these  states 
are,  1st.  The  nerves,  and  causes  acting  through  them. 

////. — That  correct  sensations  may  be  produced,  the  nerves,  organs 
of  sense,  and  all  parts  of  the  body  must  be  in  a  healthful  state. 

[2d.  The  action  of  the  intellect  and  of  the  emotions  upon  the  brain 
produce  such  states  in  it,  that  sensations  are  caused.  3d.  Disease 
will  cause  such  states  of  the  brain  that  sensations  will  be  produced  J 

Illus. — In  delirium  tremens,  the  *|MMP<  deranged  brain  produces 
sensations  of  the  most  fantastic  character. 

Inf. — As  the  brain  is  more  or  less  affected  by  any  state  of  every 
part  of  the  body,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  that  sensations  may  be  cor- 
rect, that  the  health  of  every  part  be  perfect.  When  therefore  a  per- 
son is  unwell,  he  must  not  place  too  much  confidence  in  his  sensations. 

[4th.  Inaction  produces  such  a  state  as  to  cause  sensations.  5th. 
Over-action  will  produce  such  states  as  to  cause  sensations.] 

[The  manner  in  which  all  these  causes  will  act,  and  the  states  they 
will  produce,  and  of  course,  the  sensations  they  will  cause,  will  de- 
pend jfipon  the  natural  constitution  of  the  brain  and  the  body  gen- 
erallyj 

In.f—  As  the  same  things  will,  through  differently  constituted  brains, 
and  through  the  same  brains  at  different  times,  produce  different 
sensations,  we  must  not  expect  all  persons  to  be  affected  alike  by  the 
same  things,  or  come  to  the  same  conclusions,  or  that  the  same  person 
will  always  have  the  same  opinions  about  the  same  things. 

289.  By  producing  sensations^  the  brain  is  of  use  =in  im- 
pelling the  mind  of  a  person  to  the  accomplishment  of  its 


What  do  some  believe  about  the  inner  extremities  of  the  nerves'?  1st  Cause  pro- 
ducing state*  of  the  brain?  Inf.?  2d  Cause?  3d  Cause?  Illus.  1  Inf. 7  4th 
Cause?  5t'  -\iuse?  The  action  of  those  causes  depend  upon  what?  Inf.?  »289. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  187 

Benefits  of  painful  sensations. 

duties,  both  in  regard  to  himself,  his  family,  and  society  at 


large. "] 


[For  this  purpose  sensations  are,  therefore,  painful,  pleasurable, 
or  negative.  Negative  sensations: — These  are  produced  jvvhen  the 
action  of  any  cause  is  neither^  injurious  nor  beneficial,  as  "when  an 
article  merely  touches  the  skin.'  Painful  sensations : — These  are  pro- 
duced when  any  thing  is  acting  injuriously  upon  the  body,  or  when 
any  part  of  it  is  in  an  unhealthy  state,  exercised  too  much  or  too 
little.  ;  In  short,  when  any  thing  is  for  our  injury,  we  shall  be  warned 
of  it,  sometimes  only  gently.  The  insidious  attack  of  disease  is  noti- 
fied by  perhaps  a  slight  chilliness ;  when  too  much  food  is  taken,  by  a 
slight  headache  or  dull  sensation  ;  but  this  is  the  beginning  of  greater 
evil.  A  decayed  tooth  causes  an  intense  ache,  a  diseased  bone  ex- 
treme anguish.  The  too  much  exercised  muscle  causes  fatigue;  the 
too  long  active  brain  causes  exhaustion,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
uneasiness  is  caused  by  the  unexercised  muscle ;  the  most  unendurable 
ennui  if  the  brain  be  not  exercised  by  the  intellect,  and  a  decided 
want  if  it  be  not  active  through  the  action  of  the  emotions,  while  also 
the  most  undesirable  sensations  and  effects  are  produced  if  the  brain 
be  made  active  by  a  fretful  disposition,  or  any  state  of  mind  of  an 
infelicitous  character.*  Even  the  almost  heart-breaking  anguish  the 
parent  feels  when  called  to  grieve  the  loss  of  a  dear  child  has  its 
use, — it  causes  greater  care  and  love  of  those  which  live.] 

[Pleasurable  sensatwns.-£-These  are   produced  by  whatever  acts 
\ 

"'Many  persons  are  endeavoring  to  enjoy  life  while  living  in  a  manner  that  cannot 
possibly  gain  the  desired  end,  viz.,  full  of  envy,  jealousy,  selfishness,  and  various  in- 
hum;m  passions  and  feelings.  Of  course  such  a  man  may  by  exercise  produce  an 
appetite,  and  relish  his  food,  but  yet  he  must  be  continually  annoyed  by  unpleasant 
sensations,  for  he  is  living  directly  contrary  to  his  own  best  interests,  the  interests  of 
society,  and  the  intentions  of  the  Creator.  I  have  said  he  will  relish  his  food,  but  he 
will  not  perfectly;  none  of  his  sensations  will  be  perfectly  good.  Look  not  at  his 
external  garb,  but  know  that  from  the  necessary  constitution  of  man  there  rankles  in 
his  mind  a  thousand  unpleasant  sensations.  God  never  intended  a  bad  man  should  be 
happy,  never,  therefore,  envy  him  ;  to  have  pleasurable  sensations,  a  man  must  be 
good. 


Use  of  brain?  Sensations  are,  what?  When  are  negative  sensations  caused  ?  What 
is  said  of  painful  sensations  1  Give  substance  of  foot  note  1  When  are  pleasurable 
sensations  caused  1  Give  substance  of  foot  note  1  fl  290.  How  preserve  the  perfect 


188       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Actions  of  the  emotions  and  intellect  produce  pleasurable  sensations. 

upon  the  body  favorably  to  health  and  for  the  good  of  a  man.  when 
the  various  parts  of  the  body  are  in  health,  when  they  are  properly 
exercised./  Thus  the  proper  exercise  of  the  muscles,  digestive  organs> 
excreting  organs,  respiratory  apparatus,  the  receipt  of  proper  food 
and  air,  the  circulation  of  proper  blood,  the  preservation  of  a  proper 
temperature,  but  above  all.  the  proper  exercise  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  brain,  by  the  action  of  the  emotions  and  intellect,  excite  in 
the  mind  the  most  delightful  sensations.*] 

*  The  exceeding  joy  the  parent  feels  as  he  takes  his  sweet  child  in  his  arms  is 
never  known  to  the  bachelor.  The  sensations  produced  by  the  brain  when  benevo- 
lence, patriotism,  and  all  noble  feelings  of  humanity,  render  the  brain  active,  are 
never  known  to  the  miser,  neither  are  the  rewards  of  intellectual  action  known  to  the 
mentally  indolent,  or  the  uneducated.  Those  who  have  never  experienced  the  sensa- 
tions which  belong  to  the  sphere  of  man,  but  have  always  confined  themselves  to  the 
sensations  which  are  common  to  the  animals,  look  on  and  wonder  what  satisfaction 
can  be  found  in  a  book,  or  an  enterprise  of  benevolence.  They  have  never  felt  the 
sensations  such  things  will  produce,  and  cannot  conceive  of  them.  They  are  like  a 
person  who  never  having  tasted  an  orange,  should  have  one  and  a  nurly  apple  placed 
before  him,  and  should  choose  the  apple,  because  he  knew  not  what  the  orange  was, 
never  having  tasted  one,  and  then  complain  that  the  world  did  not  furnish  good  fruit. 
They  choose  to  do  those  things  that  are  productive  of  the  least  satisfying  sensations, 
and  then  complain  that  the  world  is  not  worth  living  in.  If  they  would  think,  how- 
ever, that  every  pleasure  a  person  enjoys  is  dependent  on  sensations,  they  would  per- 
haps inquire  if  some  other  sensations  than  those  they  feel  would  not  be  more  satisfac- 
tory ;  and  they  would  upon  inquiry  find,  that  when  health  reighs  throughout  the  system, 
and  man  does  all  he  can  and  ought  to  do  in  respect  to  himself,  his  family,  society,  and 
his  God,  a  multitude  of  most  satisfactory  sensations  will  be  caused,  and  his  own  hap- 
piness produced  thereby  will  compel  him  to  acknowledge  that  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  the  Creator  is  supreme.  The  man  therefore  who  gains  the  idea  that  acquiring 
knowlege  is  not  for  him,  does  not  understand  his  nature,  the  constitution  of  his  mind 
and  brain  ;  he  talks  of  the  weather,  he  goes  in  and  comes  out,  rises  up  and  sits  down, 
yokes  himself  reluctantly  to  labor,  arid  wonders  why  he  was  made  a  slave,  to  work,  to 
drudge,  like  the  horse  that  toils  by  his  side.  He  is  mistaken.  He  was  not  made  so  to 
be.  His  horse  is  thoughtless,  and  while  he  is  thoughtless,  how  can  he  claim  more  than 
his  fellow  animal  ?  But  let  him  awake  to  the  importance  of  his  estate,  enter  the  walks 
of  useful  knowledge,  exercise  his  mind  and  brain  gradually,  mutually  assisting 
to  develop  each  other,  reach  maturity,  and  he  will  find  there  are  no  "common  men" 
but  those  who  satisfy  themselves  with  the  mere  physical  enjoyments  of  animals,  which 
perhaps  even  the  oyster  may  share  with  them— but  that  whoever  makes  study  his 
diversion,  and  the  pursuit  of  wisdom  his  satisfaction,  according  to  the  intentions  of  the 
Creator,  will  have  the  noblest  spirits  of  the  past  and  present  ages  for  his  intimate 
friends,  and  raise  himself  to  a  point  of  eminence  from  which  he  can  "look  up"  to  no 
being  but  God. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  189 


How  to  appear  pleasant,  sensible,  and  mirthful. 


290.  To  preserve  the  brain  in  a  perfect  state  for  pro- 
discing  sensations,  [the  whole  system  must  be  preserved  in 
health,  and  a  good  supply  of  blood  furnished  to  the  brain^ 

291.  \Tlie  means  of  pleasing  the  mind  through  the  brain , 
is  to  cause  a  healthy  state  of  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  to 
excite  the  proper  action  of  the  emotions  and  the  intellect. 

[Which  last  may  be  done,  by  pleasant  and  sensible  conversation, 
by  liveliness  and  mirthfulness  of  manner,  &c.  But  as  this  can  be 
done  only  when  the  mind  of  the  actor  is  sensible,  pleasant,  mirthful, 
&c..  it  may  be  said  that  the  true  art  of  pleasing  the  mind  through  the 
brain,  is  to  be  pleasant,  sensible,  mirthful.  &c.,  and  then  these  modes 
of  mind  will  involuntarily  exhibit  themselves  in  what  is  said  or  done, 
and  produce  their  natural  sensations  on  the  mind  to  be  operated  on.*] 


{     CHAPTER     IV. 

ff 

The  Mind,  in  respect  to  Sensations. 

292.  The  duty  of  the  mind  seems,  therefore,  in  respect  to 
sensations,  to  be  :  to  perceive  them,  to  judge  where  they  have 
been  produced,  and  to  be  pleased  with  them  if  their  causes 
are  productive  of  no  harm  to  the  body,  and  to  be  repugnant 
towards  all  which  are  produced  by  causes  acting  harmfully, 
to  remember  them,  to  compare  those  remembered  with  each 

*  Thus  we  find  that  a  person  causes  those  around  him  to  approach  more  or  less 
nearly  to  himself  in  disposition,  mental  character,  &c.  A  truly  pleasant  person  makes 
all  pleasant  around  him.  A  peevish  person  makes  all  peevish.  An  intellectual  per- 
son improves  those  who  are  in  his  society.  A  vicious  person  taints  the  whole  mental 
nhere  within  his  influence.  We  should,  therefore,  endeavor  to  be  good  our- 
selves, and  to  mingle  in  good  society  ;  for  as  the  old  proverb  has  it—"  Bad  company 
corrupts  good  manners." 


action  of  the  brain  7    IT  291.  How  can  the  mind  be  pleased  through  the  brain  1    How 
can  we  render  ourselves  agreeable  to  others  1    IT  292.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  mind  in 


190  ANATOMY.    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    PATHOLOGY. 

The  mind  increases  or  diminishes  the  intensity  of  sensations. 

other  and  with  new  ones,  and  thus  acquire  knowledge  of  the 
objects  which  surround  us  and  of  the  states  of  the  internal 
parts  of  the  body. 

[Perceiving  sensations. — The  mind  has  control  over  its  powers  of 
perceiving  sensations.  As  the  expression  is,  '^it  can  give  attention" 
to  sensations,  or  divert  its  attention.;  How  this  is  done  is  not  known. 
Whether  it  removes  itself  from  the  part  of  the  brain  through  which 
sensations  are  produced,  or  whether  it  stills  the  action  of  the  brain,  is 
all  unknown.  The  exercise  of  this  power  of  attention  affects  the  in- 
tensity of  sensations  in  a  remarkable  degree.  If  attention  be  given  to 
tlif  sensations  produced  by  food,  they  will  be  very  much  heightened 
thereby,  as  hereafter  seen,  facilitating  the  process  of  digestion,  if  the 
food  be  wholesome.  But  if  the  attention  of  the  mind  be  absorbed 
with  business,  etc.,  food  will  be  swallowed  without  relish:  and  very 
soon  such  a  course  will  be  followed  by  dyspepsy.  A  person  may  ride 
through  the  pleasantest  section  of  country  and  appreciate  none  of  its 
charms,  because  his  mind  gives  no  attention  to  causes  of  sight  and 
sound.  To  one  person  "there  are  li  sermons  in  stones,  books  in 
brooks;"  another  person  looks  upon  the  beautiful  flower  and  no  ad- 
miration is  awakened,  for  his  mind  heeds  not  the  sensations  it  was 
made  to  produce.] 

[The  attention  of  the  mind  being  engrossed  with  the  importance 
of  staying  the  ravages  of  fire,  or  with  the  strife  of  battle,  a  person 
feels  not  a  wound  or  the  most  exhausting  fatigue.  On  the  other 
hand  the  attention  of  the  mind  will  cause  the  slightest  sensations  to 
appear  insupportable.  He  who  gives  attention  to  every  ache  and  ail, 
will  soon  appear  to  himself  the  most  afflicted  of  the  human  family, 
and  indeed,  he  will  suffer  more  than  those  who  are  acted  upon  by  the 
most  powerful  causes  of  painful  sensations.  To  nurse  every  pain  of  a 
child,  cf^ocd  by  cut  or  bruise,  etc.  is  to  make  it  suffer  on  the  slight- 
est occasion  ;  white  to  call  off  its  attention  and  make  it  "  forget"  the 
hurt,  is  to  teach  it  to  be  manly,  and  use  the  true  means  of  relieving 
unavoidable  misfortunes  of  their  intensity.] 

29  b.  The  mind  also  imperatively  demands  the  produc- 
tion of  sensations  of  an  active  character. 

[It  seems  to  be  content  if  one  be  caused  to  take  the  place  of  an- 
other, but  the  sensation  of  ennui,  produced  by  a  want  of  sensations 
of  an  active  character,  it  will  not  endure,  and  the  more  lively  the 
mind  is,  the  less  will  it  be  satisfied  to  be  long  without  sensations.] 


regard  to  sensation.  What  control  has  the  mind  over  its  perceptions  ?  Illus.  What 
is  said  of  judgment  in  respect  to  sensations']  What  in  regard  to  pleasing  sensations? 
Memory  of  sensations?  Comparing  sensations?  H  293.  The  mind  demands  whatl 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.  191 

How  to  preserve  young  men  from  intemperance. 

Illus—  Every  one  has  experienced  the  tedium  of  waiting  for  some 
one  or  some  thing.* 

*  Two  very  important  practical  ideas  are  to  be  drawn  from  this.  1st.  In  respect  to 
how  children  should  be  treated.  2d.  In  respect  to  how  young  men  may  be  saved  from 
the  dissipation  which  overwhelms  so  many  with  ruin.  The  mind  of  the  little  child  is 
a  blank— it  has  no  thoughts,  and  but  few  emotions  to  produce  sensations — it  therefore 
should  have  an  abundance  of  sensations  produced  by  objects  of  sight  and  sound,  and 
by  exercise  of  its  muscles  ;  for  it  will  desire  sensations,  and  if  it  do  not  have  these  it 
will  wish  to  eat.  Few  children  are  as  well  attended  to  in  this  respect  as  they  ought  to 
be.  Again,  if  a  child  is  to  be  denied  one  sensation,  it  should  have  another.  For  in- 
stance, if  it  want  to  take  a  book  that  it  cannot  have,  let  it  have  something  else  that 
will  satisfy  as  well.  By  great  care  in  this  way,  a  child's  disposition  may  many  times 
be  saved.  Proper  care  of  a  child  will  admit  of  no  indolence  on  the  part  of  the  parents. 
If  it  exist,  the  parent  can  never  enjoy  the  true  parent's  reward.  In  the  second  place, 
to  rescue  young  men  from  dissipation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  place  them  in  good  society, 
where  all  their  emotions  shall  be  made  properly  active,  and  the  mind  receive  sensa- 
tions. It  will  also  be  necessary  to  cultivate  the  intellect,  that  the  mind  may  know  the 
pleasures  of  thought,  and  love  best  those  sensations  which  are  produced  by  it,  and 
delight  in  the  society  of  the  good  and  the  learned  of  past  and  present  times — and  still 
better,  find  highest  delight  in  the  society  of  the  Orator  hinw.lf,  for  then  he  r;m  never 
want  society  which  shall  occupy  his  mind  widi  sensations  ol  ilic  niusi  LinioLuiag  cha- 
racter, for  God  is  every  where,  and  His  works  are  volumes  of  never-failing  interest, 
and  which  have  no  Finis  If,  on  the  other  hand,  young  men  are  shut  out  from  society, 
and  the  sociabilities  and  refining  affabilities  and  affections  of  home  and  friends,  with 
no  taste  for  reading,  and  no  proper  places  of  amusement  to  visit,  they  will  not,  they 
cannot,  long  bear  up  against  the  urgent  desire  of  the  mind  to  perceive  sensations  ;  and 
they  will  rush  into  ruin.  ;in  1  drink-,  or  gamble,  or  any  thing  to  cause  sensations  for  the 
time  being,  rather  than  be  burdened  with  the  ennui  that  is  so  insupportable.  Every 
child,  therefore,  should  be  educated,  and  taught  to  love  learning  as  its  greatest  safe- 
guard ;  and  the  bonds  of  friendship  and  humanity  should  be  thrown  around  those  who  • 
as  strangers  and  young,  are  placed  in  our  midst. 


BOOK  III. 

ORGANS    OF   THOUGHT. 

CHAPTER   I. 

Tfo  Brain,  as  an  Organ  of  Thought. 

294.  TJie  brain  has  the  pre-eminent  office  of  being  the 
organ  used  by  the  mind,  when  it  thinks. 

[How  the  brain  is  used  is  not  known.  All  that  can  be  said,  is  to 
state  some  facts  of  practical  import.] 

295.  Different  parts  of  the  brain  are  probably  used  by 
the  mind  in  accomplishing  its  duties. 

296.  The  action  of  the  brain  is  attended  with  a  great 
change  in  its  substance — on  account  of  which  a  large  supply 
of  blood  will  be  required. 

[It  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  1,  PI.  4,  that  the  bloodvessels,  leading  to 
the  brain,  are  very  large  and  very  direct.  Thus  more  blood  is  carried 
to  the  brain,  by  from  five  to  ten  times,  than  passes  to  any  other  part 
of  the  body  of  the  same  size,  except  the  kidneys  and  lungs.] 

[It  will  also  be  found  that  the  head  becomes  hot  when  the  mind  is 
engaged  long  and  intensely  in  thinking ;  at  such  times  also  the  feet 
are  apt  to  be  cold.] 

Inf.  a.— This  shows,  as  would  be  natural,  that  if  a  large  quantity 

lllus.  1st.  Practical  idea  in  foot  note?  Second?  IT  294.  What  office  has  the  brain 
in  respect  to  thought?  Why  called  pre-eminent  ?  What  is  said  of  different  parts  of 
the  brain?  Are  there  different  parts  in  the  brain?  Tell  what  you  know  about 
them.  Can  you  determine  their  size  by  examining  the  skull  externally!  With 
what  is  action  of  the  brain  attended?  What  is  seen  by  Fig.  1,  PI.  5?  What  also 
found?  Inf.  a.  7  What  shown?  Inf.  b.?  Inf.c.?  Inf.  d.?  Mitts.?  Inf.  a.  b.  c. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  193 

Many  practical  inferences. 

of  blood  flow  to  the  brain,  some  other  parts  would  suffer  for  want  of 
a  proper  supply. 

Inf.  b. — A  person  ought  not  to  study  immediately  after  eating,  as 
blood  is  then  in  large  quantity  required  by  the  stomach. 

Inf.  c. — A  person  ought  not  to  study  while  walking  or  laboring 
diligently,  as  both  the  muscles  and  the  brain,  when  active,  require 
large  quantities  of  blood. 

Inf.  d. — When  the  head  becomes  hot  and  the  thoughts  confused, 
a  person  should  take  muscular  exercise,  warm  the  feet,  and  make 
cold  applications  to  the  head.* 

Inf.  e. — In  childhood,  when  the  blood  is  required  by  all  parts, 
in  their  growth,  it  should  not  be  appropriated  by  the  .jrain.f 

Inf.f. — The  action  of  the  brain  producing  changes  of  its  sub- 
stance, times  of  repose  will  be  required,  and  as  it  is  not  probable  the 
same  parts  of  the  brain  are  engaged  in  producing  thought  and 
causing  contractions  of  the  muscles,  it  might  be  supposed,  as  is  the 
case,  that  muscular  exercise  would  give  repose  to.  and  highly  benefit, 
those  parts  concerned  in  producing  thought.  For  the  action  of  the 
muscles  would  increase  the  circulation  of  blood  through  the  brain, 
and  produce  its  renewal,  while  at  the  same  time  that  part  concerned 
in  producing  thought  was  in  repose.:}: 

Inf.  g. — Rubbing  the  system  must  give  relief  to  the  brain  over- 
tasked with  study. 

Inf.  h. — As  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  brain  will  be  con- 
stantly reducing  the  quality  of  the  blood,  the  watery  part  of  it  ought 
to  be  removed  by  the  kidneys.*) 

Inf.  i. — If  water  be  taken,  when  a  person  is  not  thirsty,  it  prevents 
the  brain  from  being  nourished  as  rapidly  as  otherwise. || 

*  The  old  proverb  is  an  excellent  one—"  Keep  the  head  cool,  and  the  extremities 
warm."  A  cool  cloth  will  be  found  an  excellent  thing  to  apply  to  the  head  when  hot, 
and  the  mind  confused — especially  just  before  retiring.  But  though  by  such  an  appli- 
cation the  thoughts  become  clear,  a  person  should  think  no  more  till  the  brain  has  had 
time  to  be  repaired  by  rest. 

t  Too  many  times  a  child  is  put  to  study  too  young,  and  kept  at  it  too  diligently. 
It  is  better  to  exercise  the  emotions,  and  spend  time  in  cultivating  the  disposition,  and 
in  producing  an  inclination  to  make  out-door  observations  on  nature,  and  to  exercise 
abundantly  the  muscular  organs  Nature  indicates  this,  and  science  teaches  it ;  let  us 
not  be  blind,  but  notice  and  observe  a  point  of  so  much  value. 

I  Students  hardly  ever  take  as  much  muscular  exercise  as  would  be  for  their  profit 
intellectually.    Nature  has  constituted  us  to  exercise  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  it  is 
useless  to  attempt  to  live  and  enjoy  health  and  mental  vigor  without  it. 

§  The  kidneys  should  also  remove  water  at  the  same  time,  in  order  to  have  the 
waste  substance  produced  in  the  brain,  carried  off  fast  enough  by  the  excreting  organs, 
as  shown  in  fl  54. 

II  In  summer,  people  are  apt  to  drink  too  much,  especially  students ;  and,  indeed, 
this  is  the  case  at  all  times  of  the  year. 

d.  t  Footnote!  Inf.  e.?  Inf.f.?  Foot  riote!  Inf.g.?  Footnote!  Inf.  h.? 
Inf.i.l  Illus.?  Infs.  e.f.g.  h.  i.?  Footnote!  Inf.  j.1}  Footnote!  Inf.  k.? 


194  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Natural  mode  of  approaching  the  intellect. 

Inf.  j.—  When  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  brain  active,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  have  an  increased  circulation  of  blood  to  the  head  pro- 
duced.* 

I/if.  A:.— The  changes  taking-  place  in  the  brain,  will  render  the 
action  of  all  the  excreting  organs  necessary. 

[The  importance  of  pure  air  is  at  once  evident,  also  the  action  of  the 
liver,  and  second  stomach,  and  of  the  kidneys,  while  the  action  of  the 
skin  is  of  great  consequence.  Hence  those  who  sleep  or  live  in  close 
apartments,  abide  not  by  what  is  useful  to  mental  application,  neither 
do  they  who  neglect  daily  ablution  of  the  skin,  rubbing  it.  and  keep- 
ing it  warm,  or  who  neglect  to  produce  and  continue  regula*  and 
daily  evacuations  of  the  digestive  canal.] 

Inf.  /.—The  changes  taking  place  and  the  circulation  of  blood  in 
the  brain,  would  produce  much  heat  in  the  body,  especially  in  the 

*  This  may  be,  and  probably  is  accomplished  in  several  ways.  1st.  By  the  effect 
of  the  changes  themselves,  which  would  cause  an  increased  attraction  for  certain  par- 
ticles of  the  blood,  and  draw  them  on.  2d.  By  the  contraction  and  dilatation  of  the 
capillaries  of  the  brain.  3d.  By  the  increased  action  of  the  heart  and  bloodvessels. 
To  arouse  this  action  in  the  brain,  three  ways  may  be  taken.  1st.  Through  the  organs 
of  sense  and  the  nerves,  the  brain  can  most  quickly  be  aroused.  2d.  By  the  action  of 
the  emotions- the  action  can  be  carried  to  the  highest  pilch.  3d.  By  the  action  of  the 
intellect.  When  the  intellect  is  in  the  habit  of  acting,  the  action  of  the  brain  is  so 
constant  that  no  previous  steps  are  required  to  produce  the  necessary  actions.  But 
when  this  is  not  the  case,  as  it  usually  is  not,  the  action  of  the  intellectual  powers 
must  be  addressed  in  the  natural  order— through  the  organs  of  sense  and  the  emotions. 
This  was  perfectly  understood  by  Shakspeare,  and  is  practised  by  many  speakers  to  as 
great  a  degree  as  possible  under  the  circumstances.  Some  politicians  attempt  to  reach 
their  hearers  by  a  loud  tone  of  voice,  and  addressed  to  their  patriotism ;  other  speakers, 
to  rouse  and  keep  the  attention  of  their  hearers,  address  the  eye  and  other  emotions. 
One  way  or  another  must  be  taken;  the  brain  is  not  easily  aroused  to  action  if  argu- 
ments merely  are  addressed  to  the  intellect  alone.  And  the  reason  for  this  is  seen,  if 
it  be  noticed  that  sensations  produced  through  the  organs  of  sense  should  impel  the 
mind  in  many  instances  to  instant  action ;  the  emotions  also  should  arouse  the  brain, 
that  it  may  act  as  quickly  and  as  powerfully  as  the  emergency  requires— when,  for 
instance,  the  mother  must  snatch  her  child  from  beneath  the  feet  of  a  horse — while 
the  proper  action  of  the  intellect  always  requires  lime,  and  will  admit  of  course  of 
delay  in  arousing  the  brain.  We  must,  therefore,  never  approach  the  intellect  at  once, 
but  we  must  frame  our  speech  according  to  the  constitution  of  man.  and  make  our 
advances  to  the  intellect,  step  by  step,  as  the  circulation  to  the  brain  is  quickened,  and 
thus  its  action  aroused.  The  advance  being  more  or  less  rapid,  according  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  person  addressed. 

Foot  note  ?    Inf.  1.  ?    What  is  evident  ?    Inf.  m.  1     Upon  perfection  of  organ  of 


HYGIENE   AND    THERAPEUTICS.  195 

Upon  what  the  perfection  of  the  brain  depends. 

brain  itself,  on  account  of  which  an  increased  action  of  the  skin  of 
the  head  in  particular,  in  causing  perspiration,  would  be  called  for, 
and  takes  place. 

Inf.  m. — The  influence  of  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life,  will 
be  required. 

297.  The  perfection  of  the  brain  as  the  organ  of  thought, 
will  depend  upon  its  original  constitution,  upon  the  educa- 
tion of  a  person,  upon  its  state  of  health  or  disease,  and 
upon  its  regular  exercise, 

[Thus  must  end  what  can  be  in  this  work  said  upon  the  brain, 
nerves,  organs  of  sense,  muscles,  and  bones,  and  for  a  large  amount 
of  valuable  and  interesting  matter  on  these  subjects,  the  reader  is 
referred  to — "  Popular  Anatomy  and  Physiology."] 

298.  By  reviewing  the  organs  of  the  first  class  it  will  be 
found,  that  so  far  as  they  are  concerned,  they  are  benefited, 
and  benefit  other  parts,  solely  by  being  exercised,  and  all 
their  wants,  in  other  respects,  are  supplied  by  other  organs, 
forming  the  second  class.     To  know  the  conditions  in  which 
these  are  well  performed  must  be  exceedingly  important  and 
interesting. 

thought  depend,  what  1  What  organs  compose  the  first  class  ?  What  are  they  for  ? 
How,  when,  and  why  is  the  mind  pained  by  means  of  them  ?  Give  twenty  illustra- 
tions on  the  black-board.  How,  when,  and  why  is  the  mind  pleased  by  means  of  them  1 
Can  you  mention  an  instance  by  which  you  can  show  that  the  mind  is  pleased  without 
the  use  of  them  7  Give  twenty-five  illustrations  on  the  black-board  of  the  mind  being 
pleased  by  them.  Each  one,  state  the  particular  way  in  which  his  own  mind  is  best 
pleased  by  them.  Can  we,  then,  please  our  own  minds  and  those  of  others  by  means 
of  them  ?  What  will  be  the  effect  upon  ourselves  and  them  ?  fi  295.  By  reviewing 
the  organs  of  the  first  class  what  will  be  found? 


DIVISION    II. 

PAETICULAB   DESCRIPTION    OF   SECOND    CLASS   OF 
OKGANS. 


BOOK  I. 

DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 

Prefatory  Remarks. 

{Chemistry  of  the  world.— There  are  56  different  ihings  called 
elements,  composing  the  world ;  united  or  combined  in  an  almost 
endless  variety  of  ways,  they  form  the  multitude  of  objects  that 
surround  us.  Some  things  are  composed  of  but  two — some  of  many 
elements.  What  is  singular  is,  that  a  substance  composed  of  two  of 
these,  will  exhibit  scarcely  a  property  that  distinguishes  either 
element  separately.  It  is  still  more  strange,  that  substances  com- 
posed of  the  same  identical  elements,  and  only  varying  slightly  in  the 
proportions  of  each,  should  be  so  different  in  their  properties,  that 
from  their  appearance,  we  should  not  even  guess  that  each  contained 
even  one  of  the  same  kind  of  elements.  Indeed,  sometimes  two 
substances  appearing  entirely  unlike,  are  not  only  composed  of  the 
same  elements,  but  in  the  same  proportions,  only  they  are  combined 
in  some  different  way  in  the  two  substances.] 

Ittus.  a. — Water  is  composed  of  two  kinds  of  gases  or  air,  viz., 
Oxygen  and  Hydrogen. 

Illus.  b. — Starch,  fat,  sugar,  and  gum  are  composed  of  the  same 
three  kinds  of  elements,  Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  and  Carbon. 

[These  elements  not  only  exhibit  peculiar  properties,  when  they 
are  combined,  but  they  also  produce  singular  results  as  they  are 
combining,  or  as  they  are  separating  from  each  other.] 

Ittus.  a.— Muscular  action  takes  place  at  the  instant  of  the  decom- 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  197 

How  heat  is  produced. 

position  of  the  muscle,  or  separation  of  its  composed  or  combined 
elements  from  each  other.* 

IlLns.  b. — When  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  uniting  to  form  water, 
heat  is  produced.  When  carbon  and  oxygen  are  uniting  to  form  car- 
bonic gas,  heat  is  produced.f 

[C/iemistry  of  the  system. — Thirteen  necessarily,  16  usually,  and 
19  sometimes,  of  the  simple  elements  are  found  in  the  human  body. 
Of  the  13  some  exist  in  very  small  quantity,  but  no  one  of  them  can 
be  entirely  wanting  and  life  continue.  The  body  is  chiefly  formed  of 
Five,  viz.,  Oxygen,  Hydrogen.  Carbon,  Nitrogen,  and  Lime.  The 
four  first,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  con- 
stitute the  great  bulk  of  the  soft  parts.  The  last  is  a  mineral,  and, 
combined  with  carbon  and  phosphorus  and  oxygen,  constitutes  the 
basis  of  the  bones,  and  gives  them  their  rigidity 4J 

[But  the  system  is  composed  of  these  elements  in  a  compound 

*  It  is  seldom  that  the  elements  of  a  compound  separate  without  uniting  immediately 
in  some  new  way  among  themselves  ;  thus  producing  composition  of  new  substances. 
This  takes  place  in  case  of  the  muscle  ;  several  simpler  compounds  than  the  muscle 
was.  are  formed. 

t  A  change  of  temperature  is  almost  always  exhibited  when  any  of  the  elements 
unite,  or  separate,  to  any  cpnsiderable  degree  :  much  heat,  however,  is  exhibited  only 
when  a  few  of  them  unite.  The  most  common  of  these  are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
carbon,  uniting  as  before  stated;  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  to  form' water,  the  oxygen 
and  carbon  to  form  what  is  called  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  is  a  kind  of  air  which  is  very 
poisonous  to  the  blood,  if  acting  upon  it  in  any  quantity.  Wood  is  composed  to  a 
great  degree  of  these  three  elements.  When  it  burns,  its  oxygen  unites  with  its  hydro- 
gen— thus  water  is  formed  and  heat  produced.  The  carbon  is  left,  behind  in  the  form 
of  charcoal,  except  there  is  a  draught  of  air.  If  there  be,  the  oxygen,  which,  in  part, 
composes  the  air,  in  passing  over  the  burning  wood  unites  with  its  carbon,  and  carbonic 
acid  gas  is  produced,  and  also  heat — in  common  words,  the  charcoal  is  burned  up.  Of 
course  the  more  air  there  is  passing  over  the  burning  wood,  and  the  closer  it  is  brought 
in  contact  with  it,  the  more  rapidly  will  the  oxygen  unite  with  the  carbon,  and  the 
more  heat  will  there  be  produced  in  a  given  length  of  time.  Hence,  why  we  blow  the 
fire  to  make  it  burn.  It  may  be  asked  what  causes  the  elements  to  separate  and  form 
new  unions— why  do  they  not  stay  as  they  were?  that  is  to  say,  what  causes  the  wood 
to  burn?  To  kindle  the  wood  we  hold  a  coal  of  fire  to  it.  The  heat  of  the  coal  acts 
on  the  elements  of  the  nearest  particles  of  wood,  and  compels  them  to  separate.  This 
is  the  effect  of  heat  upon  almost  every  thing.  When,  by  the  action  of  heat,  they  have 
been  separated  to  a  given  distance,  they  have  no  longer  a  strong  tendency  to  unite  as 
before,  but  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  prefer  to  form  a  union  by  themselves,  while  the 
carbon  has  recourse  to  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  unites  with  it.  The  heat 
thus  produced  acts  on  the  elements  of  the  next  particles  of  wood  and  they  burn,  and 
so  on  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre,  and  the  entire  stick  is  burned. 

}  The  bony  framework  is,  therefore,  a  most  superlative  piece  of  masonry,  the 
rocky  portions  of  which,  constituted  of  the  most  beautiful  marble  and  porcelain,  are 
cemented  together  in  a  surprisingly  ingenious  manner,  and  then  wrought  into  the 
delicate  laminae  of  the  cells  or  of  "the  more  solid  sides  of  the  bones— built  into  pro- 
cesses, arched  over  cavities,  raised  up  into  a  dome,  here  contracted,  there  spread  out, 
ridged  up,  bulged,  &c.,  with  all  the  devices  of  consummate  architecture,  to  give  the 
greatest  strength  with  the  least  amount  of  substance ;  while,  passing  all  human  art, 
it  is  composed  of  pieces  not  only,  but  also  so  arranged,  that  if  they  become  damaged  or 
any  way  unfit,  there  may  be  a  constant  renewal  of  the  most  minute  portions,  with- 
out marring  the  beautiful  work  in  the  slightest  degree,  or  even  leaving  a  trace  of  the 
repair;  and  then  the  whole  so  faced,  smoothed,  or  finished  like  "  rock  work,"  as  to  be 
in  the  most  exquisite  degree  a  combination  of  utilities,  symmetries,  and  beauty,  such  as 
is  seen  only  in  the  works  of  the  Creator.  How  can  any  one  think  a  skeleton  is  shock- 
ing. Thou  art  unworthily  like  it,  thou  thoughtless— go  to  it  and  learn  wisdom. 


198  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY.    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Animals  and  plants  form  a  circuit  for  the  elements. 

state,  and  the  action  of  muscles  of  every  part  of  the  system  depends 
upon  the  decomposition  of  compounded  elements  ;  that  is,  a  separation 
of  them  into  new  and  simpler  compounds.*  So  in  the  production  of 
heat,  decompositions  must  take  place.  Before  the  elements  can  be 
decomposed,  they  must  be  compounded.  This  no  part  of  an  animal 
can  do.  They  must  be  compounded  in  their  highest  degree  before 
they  are  received  by  the  body.  For  the  action  of  the  body  upon 
them  is  to  decompose  them.  Plants  are  the  agents  of  the  digestive 
organs,  for  gathering  from  the  56  elements  composing  the  world, 
those  which  are  needed  by  the  body,  and  for  combining  them  in  the 
right  way.] 

[Chemistry  of  Plants.— Plants  have  the  power  of  combining  ele- 
ments, but  not  of  decomposing  them.  They  are,  therefore,  just  the 
reverse  of  animals,  and  the  elements  are  passing  through  a  ceaseless 
circuit.  First  they  are  combined  by  the  plant,  then  received  and 
somewhat  farther  prepared  by  the  animal,  decomposed  to  produce 
action,  or  heat,  or  both,  and  in  a  more  simple  state  carried  out  of  the 
body  to  be  again  seized  by  the  plant  and  recombined.  To  assist  in 
forming  itself,  and  in  combining  the  elements  for  the  necessities  of 
animals,  the  plant  requires  and  forms  for  itself  other  substances  than 
those  required  by  the  animal,  and  they  are  more  or  less  mixed  with 
those  which  are  needed.] 

lllus. — In  the  sugar-cane,  sugar  is  found  in  the  midst  of  a  much 
larger  amount  of  substance,  not  needed  by  an  animal. 

Inf.  a. — Animals  will  require  digestive  organs,  not  only  large 
enough  to  receive  all  the  compound  elements  really  needed  by  the 
body,  but  large  enough  to  contain  all  the  substance  with  which  they 
are  found  more  or  less  closely  combined ;  and  the  digestive  organs 
must  be  able  to  prepare,  not  only  the  needed  substances,  but  to  sepa- 
rate them  from  those  which  are  of  no  value,  and  to  pass  the  last  out 
of  the  body. 

lllus.—  That  the  ox  may  obtain  the  sugar  from  the  cane,  his  diges- 
tive organs  must  be  large  enough  to  receive  not  only  the  sugar  he 
flieeds,  but  the  large  amount  of  other  substance  with  which  it  is  found; 
so  also  in  case  of  grass.f 

Inf.  b. — As  during  the  winter,  in  temperate  zones,  plants  could 

*  Which,  in  fact,  is  a  decomposition  and  recomposition,  but  it  is  a  downward  step 
toward  a  separation  of  the  elements  into  their  simple  state  ;  for  the  new  compounds, 
though  more  numerous,  are  each  composed  of  fewer  elements  than  the  original  com- 
pound. 

t  The  ingenuity  of  man  enables  him  to  express  the  juice,  and  evaporate  the  watery 
part  of  it ;  and  so  also  he  prepares  other  kinds  of  food,  sometimes  wisely,  some- 
times not. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  199 

The  character  of  food  differs  at  different  seasons. 

not  continue  their  actions,  but  as  animals  would  still  require  food,  not 
only,  but  a  very  large  supply  of  it.  plants  ought  during  the  summer 
to  produce  a  supply  in  advance,  which  should  also  have  as  little  bulk 
as  possible,  viz..  contain  as  little  useless  substance,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  the  digestive  organs  of  animals  ought  not  in  cold  weather 
to  suffer  from  receiving  very  little  useless  substance. 

Jllus. — In  the  summer  the  squirrel  finds  plenty  of  bemes.  which 
are  quickly  grown,  and  of  course,  contain  but  little  of  compound  sub- 
stances needed  by  his  body,  which  also  needs  but  little,  especially 
of  heat-producing  food,  which  the  acid  berry  is  not ;  but  in  the  fall  he 
finds  plenty  of  nuts  and  grain,  which  have  been  a  long  time  ripening, 
and  which  areas  it  were  the  essence  of  the  plant,  and  contain  a  great 
deal  of  needed  compounds,  especially  of  a  heat  and  fat-producing 
sort,  of  which  his  body  is  in  need,  and  the  quantity  of  this  which  he 
needs,  will  fill  his  stomach  as  much  as  the  berries  of  summer.* 

////. — From  this  we  may  argue,  that  it  is  well  for  man  to  prepare 
his  food  in  a  concentrated  form  for  cold  weather,  but  not  in  summer. 

[  The  digestive  organs  of  different  animals  differ. — Some  have  been 
intended  by  nature  to  prey  upon  other  animals.  In  this  case,  the 
useless  parts  of  plants  have  been  removed  by  the  animal  that  ate 
them,  and  the  useful  elements  only  are  eaten  by  the  animal  of  prey. 
His  organs  of  digestion  may,  therefore,  be  small  and  simple.] 

lllus. — The  ox  and  sheep  have  four  stomachs,  and  very  long 
Second  Stomachs.  The  tiger  but  one  stomach  and  very  short  Second 
Stomach. 

[As  animals  living  upon  plants  have  been  intended  for  different 
duties,  their  digestive  organs  must  be  constructed  with  reference 
thereto.] 

lUus.—The  horse  is  intended  for  fleetness.  and  therefore  cannot, 
like  the  ox,  carry  an  extensive  digestive  apparatus  and  a  large  quan- 
tity of  food ;  he  has  but  one  stomach,  and  not  a  very  long  Second 
Stomach. 

[If  he  live  upon  the  same  kind  of  food  as  the  ox,  he  must  eat  a 
great  deal  more  of  it,  for  he  can  only  obtain  from  it  that  portion  of 
substance  which  is  most  easily  obtained,  and  then  allow  it  to  pass  on, 
and  he  must  be  eating  much  more  of  his  time  than  the  ox,  especial- 
ly in  cold  weather.] 

Inf. —To  feed  a  horse  profitably,  his  food  should  be  of  such  a 
nature,  that  it  contains  much  of  the  useful  substance,  and  it  should 
be  prepared  so  as  to  be  easily  and  thoroughly  digested.f 

*  Indeed,  it  will  be  realized  that  the  stomach  of  the  squirrel  could  not  contain  suf- 
ficient food  for  the  wants  of  his  body,  if  in  fall  the  useful  compounds  were  found  as 
much  mixed  with  useless  ones  as  they  are  in  berries  ;  and  the  food  supplied  for  him 
in  fall  also  requires  less  room  and  labor  for  storage. 

t  By  properly  preparing  food  for  horses,  they  "can  be  kept  at  from  one  third  to  one 
half  less  than  usual.  Their  dependence  should  be  mostly  on  grain,  finely  ground, 
boiled,  and  mixed  thoroughly  with  cut  straw  or  hay. 


200       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

How  valuable  food  is  frequently  wasted. 

\Tke  digestive  organs  of  animals  intended  by  nature  to  live  on  differ- 
ent plants  or  different  parts  of  plants,  ought  to  differ.  For  the  useful 
compounds  of  different  plants  and  different  parts  of  plants,  are  in 
quantity  and  manner  differently  combined  with  useless  substances.] 

Inf. — At  different  seasons  of  the  year  the  digestive  organs  of  the 
same  animal  should  differ. 

[Thus  it  is  seen:  that  there  is  a  perfect  relation  between  plants 
and  animals,  each  being  adapted  to  the  other  and  each  a  part  of  one 
whole  plan.] 


CHAPTER    I. 

Food  and  Drink* 

SEC.  A. — General  Character,  of  Food. 

299.  Food  may  first  be  considered  as  composed  of  three 
classes  of  substances.  1st.  Nourishment.  2d.  Fuel.  3d. 
Useless  substance. 

[Either  of  the  first  two  become  useless  if  eaten  in  larger  quanti- 
ties than  the  needs  of  the  system,  in  respect  to  nourishment  or  fuel.] 

Inf. — A  person  may,  therefore,  eat  a  large  quantity  of  food  and  re- 
ceive "no  benefit  from  it.  because  it  is  not  of  the  right  kind.  He  may 
feed  his  animals  with  a  large  quantity  of  valuable  food,  which  will  be 
wasted,  because  it  is  not  of  the  right  kind.  In  order  to  feed  stock 
properly,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  and  physiology  of 
plants  and  animals  is  required. 

[A  great  deal  of  fault  is  committed  in  respect  to  children  by  feeding 
them  with  the  same  kinds  of  food  as  older  persons  eat,  when  their 
wants  are  different,  and  they  suffer  in  two  ways.  viz. — they  do  not 
obtain  what  they  need  to  cause  them  to  grow,  to  keep  them  warm, 
&c. ;  and  they  do  eat  much  more  than  they  ought  of,  to  them,  useless 

*  The  importance  of  food  and  drink  may  be  judged  from  the  amount  of  food  and 
drmk  taken  in  a  lifetime.  If  only  a  pound  of  meat  per  day  for  300  days  per  year, 
during  50  years,  be  eaten,  it  will  "amount  to  15,000  pounds.  That  is,  every  man  who 
lives  to  be  GO  years  of  age,  eats  in  that  time,  five  yoke  of  fat  oxen,  10  hogs,  20  sheep, 
100  turkeys,  250  chickens,  and  500  pounds  of  trout,  salmon,  codfish,  oysters,  Ac.,  and 
besides  this,  about  30  tons  of  bread,  vesetables,  and  fruits,  and  will  also  drink  from 
20,000  to  50,000  quarts  of  water. 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.  201 

Composition  of  animal  and  vegetable  food. 

food,  which  annoys  the  second  stomach,  and  causes  disease  in  it  of  an 
aggravated  character.  When  a  child  does  not  digest  its  food,  and  its 
stomach  seems  to  receive  a  large  amount  of,  to  it,  useless  food,  two 
things  are  to  be  considered :— 1st,  if  it  receive  too  much  of  one  kind, 
and  not  enough  of  another,  or  2d,  if  it  receive  too  much  of  all  kinds.] 

[  The  nourishment  of  the  system  must  be  composed  more  or  less  of 
nitrogen,  for  that  is  an  element  in  each  of  the  compounds  found  in 
the  body.] 

[  The  fuel  must  be  composed  of  substances  composed  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon,  but  not  of  nitrogen.  These  compounds  are 
chiefly— fat  (oils,  &c.),  starch,  sugar  (honey,  molasses,  &c.),  gums.] 

300.  Food  may,  secondly,  be  considered  as  composed  of 
animal  and  vegetable  food;  which  include  meat,  milk,  and 
eggs;  nuts,  seeds  and  grains,  succulent  roots,  the  twigs  and 
bark  of  some  trees,  sap,  fruit,  leaves  and  stalks  (greens)  of 
plants,  and  the  wood  and  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

[Meat  is  composed  of  lean,  fat,  tendinous  and  nervous  substance, 
and  blood.  It  always  contains  more  or  less  waste,  though  but  little 
comparatively.  Lean  meat  must  be  mostly  nourishment,  and  adapted 
to  be  eaten  in  summer,  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  waste  be  also  taken. 
The  fat  must  be  fuel,  and  well  adapted  to  cold  weather,  but  not  to 
warm.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  animals  are  fat  in  the  fall 
and  in  cold  climates,  in  accordance  with  our  need ;  and  our  appetite 
inclines  us  to  be  fond  of  fat  meats  in  fall — sausages,  for  instance. 
Many  persons  having  hearty  appetites  in  summer  from  laboring  hard, 
injure  themselves  by  eating  too  fatty  food.  Milk  is  nourishment, 
fuel  and  water ;  whether  it  contain  any  waste  substance  or  not  is  un- 
certain. A  great  part  of  its  bulk  is  water ;  in  this  are  dissolved  the 
fuel  and  nourishment.  The  fuel  is  fat  (butter)  and  sugar ;  the  rest 
of  the  solid  portions  of  the  milk  may  be  considered  as  nourishment. 

In  skim-milk,  therefore,  there  is  as  much  nourishment,  but  not  as 
much  fuel  or  food  to  fatten,  as  in  new  milk.  The  same  is  true  of  but- 
ter-milk. The  sugar  is  the  only  heating  or  fattening  ingredient. 
These  are  kinds  of  food  which  will  do  well  in  warm  weather,  and  to 
cause  animals  "  to  grow,"  but  will  not  be  suitable  tp  very  young  ani- 
mals, or  to  cold  weather.  Cheese  must  contain  much  concentrated 
nourishment.  Eggs  are  entirely,  except  the  shell,  transformed  into 
the  chicken,  and  must  be  entirely  nourishment,  and  well  adapted  to 
spring  and  summer,  but  not  so  perfectly  to  fall  and  winter.] 

[  Vegetable  food*  Nuts  contain  a  large  amount  of  oil,  and  some 
nourishment,  and  are  well  adapted  to  cold  weather.  Seeds  and  grains 
form  our  breads,  puddings,  and  pastry  generally.  They  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  starch ;  many  of  them  more  or  less  oil,  nutritious 
substance,  and  a  portion  of  waste.  Some  of  them  are  adapted  to  use 
all  the  year;  for  instance— oats,  wheat,  &c.  (oats  are  probably  the 

*  Animal  food  is,  in  fact,  vegetable  food,  since  it  was  composed  by  planta. 


202       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

People  are  apt  to  eat  those  kinds  of  food  improper  for  the  season. 

best  and  cheapest  of  them  all)  ;  while  some  are  much  better  adapted 
to  cold  weather ;  for  instance  buckwheat,  &c.  Roots.  Some  of  the 
roots  contain,  for  instance  the  potato,  a  large  amount  of  starch ; 
also  nutriment,  and  waste.  Others,  for  instance  beets,  contain  sugar, 
and  waste.  The  twigs,  buds,  and  bark  of  trees  contain  gum.  starch, 
nourishment  in  small  quantities,  and  waste  substance  in  large.  Sap 
sometimes  contains  sugar.  Fruit  is  very  different  in  different  cases : 
that  which  is  quickly  formed  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  such  as 
berries,  cherries,  &c.,  is  composed  mostly  of  water,  waste  substance, 
a  little  nourishment,  with  scarcely  any  heating  properties.  That 
which  is  formed  more  slowly,  and  comes  to  maturity  later,  contains 
more  "substance."  The  hotter  the  summer,  the  sooner  do  fruits 
mature,  and  the  more  juicy  and  delicious  are  they ;  which  is  espe- 
cially true  of  those  brought  from  tropical  climates.  Certain  fruits, 
such  as  peas,  beans.  &c..  approach  nearer  to  being  seeds,  and  contain 
a  great  deal  of  nourishment.  The  fruits  ripening  toward  fall,  contain 
sometimes  sugar,  as  sweet  apples;  sometimes  starch,  sometimes  gum, 
and  more  or  less  nutriment.  The  most  conspicuous  food  in  fruits, 
however,  is  the  waste  food,  which  renders  them  excellent  for  summer 
use.  as  serving  to  make  up  a  necessary  bulk  of  food,  and  should  be 
eaten,  no  matter  what  epidemic  may  prevail.*  The  leaves  and  stalks 
of  plants  are  almost  entirely  nutriment,  and  waste  substance,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year,  as  they  should  be ;  for  as  summer  is  approach- 
ing, the  stock  of  fuel  in  the  system  does  not  need  to  be  increased,  but 
may  be  drawn  upon  till  exhausted.  Toward  fall  they  contain  more 
starch,  gum,  &c.  Yet  most  of  them  do  all  summer  long  contain  more 
or  less  of  fuel ;  for  the  cow  obtains  the  butter  she  yields,  from  the 
grass.f  The  wood  and  roots  of  many  trees  contain  more  or  less  of  a 
starchy  substance,  and  a  gum,  mixed  with  mucilage,  that  contains  a 
small  portion  of  nourishment;  but  these  parts  of  plants,  being  a 
framework  to  the  plant,  are  mostly  composed  of  incompatible  waste 
substance.] 

[  Of  the  various  kinds  of  food,  people  are  apt  to  eat  too  much  nour- 
ishment, summer  and  winter,  and  especially  when  unwell;  and  in 
summer,  and  when  unwell,  too  much  fuel ;  and  in  summer,  too  little 
waste  food,  which  by  sedentary  persons  is  used  in  too  small  quantity 
during  the  winter.  Females  do  not  eat  enough  waste  food,  as  a  gene- 
ral thing.] 

*  One  of  the  most  incorrect  ideas  that  has  ever  been  conceived  is,  that  fruit  is  in- 
jurious in  summer.  It  is  not  the  fruit,  hut  the  way  it  is  eaten.  It  should  be  eaten  as 
nature  ripens  it,  a  little  at  a  time  when  we  first  use  a  new  kind,  not  according  to  the 
state  of  the  market ;  and  as  soon  as  accustomed  to  it  we  may  eat  abundantly,  always 
noticing  that  as  soon  as  the  weather  for  a  day,  or  even  the  half  of  it,  becomes  cool,  the 
system  requires  more  of  some  other  food  and  less  of  fruit. 

t  Cabbage  is  said  to  contain  more  nourishment  in  proportion  to  its  weight  when 
dried  than  any  other  plant,  and  in  this  respect  is  probably  the  most  profitable  of  any 
thing  that  can  be  raised.  The  effects  of  Scotch  Kale,  and  Dutch  Sourcrout,  show  that 
cabbage  is  not  an  unhealthy  article  of  food,  but  probably  one  of  the  most  healthy  on 
the  catalogue.  About  30  tons  of  fresh  cabbage  can  be  raised  to  the  acre. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  203 


In  ill  healiji  food  should  not  be  taken. 


SEC,  B. — Quantity  of  Food. 

301.  The  quantity  of  food  which  should  be  eaten  depends 
upon  the  constitution  ;  the  health  ;  period  of  life  ;  the  exer- 
cise ;  exposure  to  the  cold ;  whether  or  not  it  be  desirable 
to  fatten  an  animal,  or  one's  self;  kind  of  food  taken  \  and  on 
the  appetite. 

[The  constitutions  of  people  differ  in  respect  to  the  thoroughness 
with  which  the  useful  portions  of  the  food  are  extracted  from  it.] 

Illus. — One  person  or  animal  is  very  easily  fattened ;  another  not. 

[In  ill  health,  the  system  cannot  digest  food,  and  therefore  it 
should  not  be  taken ;  and  the  necessity  for  it  should  be  prevented  by 
keeping  quiet,  and  warmly  clothed  and  sheltered.*  In  early  child- 
hood, food  is  required  only  to  preserve  warmth,  and  cause  growth  ; 
and  as  the  child  is  feeble,  it  must  chiefly  depend  on  clothing  and  arti- 
ficial heat  if  it  be  cold  weather,  and  of  course  can  do  well  with  very 
little  food.  In  older  childhood,  food  is  required  on  account  of  growth, 
exercise,  and  the  exposure  to  cold,  which  is  very  great;  much  food 
must  then  be  eaten.  In  mature  years  movements  are  more  sedate, 
the  body  has  reached  its  full  development,  and  less  food  in  propor- 
tion is  required,  and  of  a  different  kind.  Then  comes  declining 
years,  when  the  enfeebled  powers  of  the  system  require  fat.  and 
clothing,  to  preserve  what  heat  they  can  produce  ;  and  food  produc- 
tive of  heat,  and  most  easily  digested — creams,  gums,  puddings,  &e. 
Exercise  demands  corresponding  quantities  of  nourishment.  Expo- 
sure to  the  cold  requires  large  supplies  of  fuel.  Exercise  and  expo- 
sure to  cold  together  demand  the  largest  supplies  of  food.  When  fat 
is  to  be  produced,  fuel  should  be  used  freely.  If  food  of  the  kind  de- 
manded, chiefly  constitute  what  is  eaten,  so  much  food  will  not  be 
required  as  if  the  necessary  kind  constitute  but  a  small  portion  of 
what  we  eat.  Appetite  should  always  be  regarded  to  a  degree ;  at 
least,  we  should  never  eat  when  we  do  not  feel  an  appetite.  If  the 
appetite  be  an  unhealthy  one,  "  a  sick  head-ache  appetite,"  it  should 
be  disregarded.  If  we  have  a  light  appetite  it  may  Be  regarded,  and 
a  little  eaten  ;  but  it  is  better  to  wait  till  a  hearty  appetite  occurs.  If 
appetite  exist,  we  should  not  gratify  it.  if  we  shall  be  immediately 
called  upon  to  exercise,  physically  or  mentally,  as  for  digestion  of 
food,  blood  will  be  required  by  the  stomach,  and  also  by  the  other 
organs  exercised.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  satiate  the  appetite,  but 
merely  to  satisfy  it.  Eat  till  the  feeling  of  all  parts  of  the  system 
seems  to  say,  "  enough." 

*  There  is  no  one  thing  about  which  people  err  more  than  eating  when  unwell,  in 
order  to  gain  strength.  If  a  person  cannot  walk  or  work,  how  can  he  do  what  calls 
for  greater  effort  on  the  part  of  the  system  ?  Many  a  disease  would  be  entirely  con- 
quered by  decided  abstinence  in  its  commencement.  Let  not  a  person  eat  when  he 
feels  unwell. 


204       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Food  should  not  be  taken  before  repasts -nor  just  before  retiring. 


SEC.   C. —  Times  of  the  day  when  Food  should  be  eaten. 

301.  Times  when  food  should  be  eaten  depends  upon  the 
age,  occupations,  and  the  habits  of  a  person. 

[In  early  infancy  the  system  has  no  other  duty  to  perform,  and,  as 
in  case  of  animals  of  some  kinds,  the  stomach  of  the  child  may  con- 
tain food  most  of  the  time  without  material  injury.  The  child  has 
advanced  hut  a  few  days  in  life,  however,  before  other  parts  of  the 
system  begin  to  develope  themselves  to  such  a  degree  as  to  require 
the  stomach  to  repose  itself  for  their  benefit,  if  not  for  its  own.  The 
intervals  of  repose  must  grow  longer  as  the  child  grows  older.  At 
as  early  a  day  as  possible,  regular  periods  of  taking  food  should  be 
adopted.  Habit  has  a  great  influence  over  the  action  of  every  part  of 
the  system,  and  most  surely  upon  the  action  of  the  digestive  organs. 
The  particular  time  in  the  course  of  the  day  does  notmattei,  pro- 
vided, it  be  the  same  day  by  day.*  It  will  usually  be  most  desirable 
and  better  to  take  some  food  into  the  stomach  soon  after  rising,  if 
not,  a  dram  of  water  should  be  taken  if  a  person  be  going  out  in  a 
fever  and  ague  district,  or  when  any  epidemic  prevails.  Indeed,  then 
it  will  be  best  to  take  breakfast  before  going  out.  About  mid-day 
and  toward  the  close  of  the  afternoon  will  usually  be  chosen  by,  and 
be  best  for  the  laboring  man,  as  the  hours  to  take  his  repasts,  while  the 
professional  man  will  probably  prefer  two  repasts  per  day.  Three  times 
per  day  are  as  many  times  as  any  one  ought  to  eat.  No  food  should 
be  taken  between  meals,  as  the  stomach  itself  needs  time  for  repose, 
and  the  action  of  the  other  organs  require  the  blood  and  nervous 
energies  which  must  be  given  to  the  stomach  when  food  is  digested. 
Food  between  meals  also  takes  off  the  edge  of  appetite  for  the 
following  repast,  which  should  be  keen,  that  food  may  be  highly 
relished  and  well  and  easily  digested.  But,  above  all  things,  food 
should  not  be  eaten  for  several  hours  before  retiring.  The  digestive 
operation  requires  the  action  of  the  nervous  system,  and  also  acts 
upon  it,  and  sleep  cannot  be  sweet  and  sound,  when  food  is  in  the 
stomach,  nor  will  it  answer  to  eat  "just  a  little."  A  little  requires  a 
long  time  to  digest,  and  will  make  the  sleep  disquiet.  Such  dis- 
turbance of  the  nervous  system  produces  not  only  darangement  of 
health,  but  despoils  the  complexion  of  its  beauty.  It  is  contrary  to 
the  laws  of  God  to  eat  and  drink  at  parties  or  elsewhere  in  the 
evening,  or  when  a  person  has  not  an  appetite.  Let  the  time  be 
occupied  in  gratifying  some  appetite  of  a  more  rational  character. 
Experience  has  taught  old  age,  how  to  eat  and  when,  or  he  has 
lived  without  avail.] 

*  Nor  ought  this  rule  to  be  broken  in  upon  weekly,  as  it  is  by  many,  for  the  diges- 
tive organs  are  much  deranged  by  the  meals  falling  three  times  a  day  at  certain  hours, 
and  then  on  one  day  only  twice  per  day  at  certain  other  hours.  They  will  not  be  so 
much  injured  by  going  without  food  for  a  day,  as  I  believe. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  205 


The  interesting  case  of  Alexis  St.  Martin, 


SEC.  D. —  Cooking  of  Food. 

302.  Cooking  of  food  serves  tivo  purposes.  1st.  To  pre- 
pare and  combine  it  so  that  it  shall  be  better  relished. 
2d.  To  prepare  it  in  such  way  that  the  digestive  organs  can 
more  easily  extract  the  useful  portions. 

[The  relish  of  food  depends  very  much  upon  habit,  somewhat 
upon  the  natural  constitution,  much  upon  the  health,  and  much  on 
the  appetite  produced  by  exercise  and  exposure,  upon  the  proper 
cooking  of  the  food,  and  lastly  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  eaten. 
Since  one  article  eaten  before  another  increases  the  relish  with  which 
it  is  eaten,  while  reverse  the  order,  and  neither  article  would  be 
relished.  It  is  quite  important  to  have  the  food  cooked  so  that  it 
shall  be  highly  relished,  as  it  will  more  readily  digest.] 

Inf. — It  is  the  duty  of  a  man  to  cultivate  a  high  relish  for  whole- 
some food,  as  he  will  thus  enjoy  another  of  the  blessings  God  has 
created  him  to  enjoy. 

[That  cooking  does  itself  have  an  influence  on  the  time  required 
to  digest  the  food,  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  table.*] 

*  As  the  stomach  is  hidden  from  our  view  under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  might 
be  thought  by  some,  that  statements  in  respect  to  the.  operations  of  this  organ  must  be 
entirely  conjectural ;  and  so  they  were  until  within  a  few  years.  In  the  year  1822, 
however,  a  young  man,  Alexis  St.  Martin  by  name,  a  Canadian  by  birth,  but  at  the 
time  in  Mich'igan  in  the  United  States  service,  was  accidentally  wounded  by  the  dis- 
charge of  a  gun,  the  muzzle  of  which  was  about  a  yard  behind  and  a  little  to  the  left 
of  him,  and  pointed  across  his  side,  which  was  torn  open  by  the  buckshot,  and  some- 
what burnt  by  the  powder  with  which  the  gun  was  loaded.  Dr.  Beaumont,  U.  S.  sur- 
geon, was  immediately  called.  He  found,  as  he  says,  a  portion  as  large  as  a  turkey's 
egg,  of  the  left  lung,  pushed  out  through  the  opening  made ;  and  noticed,  also,  that 
the  food  eaten  for  breakfast  by  St.  Martin  about  an  hour  before,  was  passing  out  in  a 
half-digested  state.  Of  course,  the  stomach  was  injured.  Strange  to  say,  in  about  ten 
months  after  this,  St.  Martin  was  well,  to  the  great  credit  of  Dr.  B^  Still  more  strange, 
and  fortunate  for  the  world,  and  apparently  without  injury  to  St.  Martin,  though  the 
opening  in  the  side  closed  up  so  as  to  cover  in  the  lung,  the  edges  of  the  wound  in  the 
stomach  refused  to  "  grow  together,"  but  grew  to  the  edges  of  .the  external  wound  in 
the  side — thus  leaving  an  opening,  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  circumference, 
through  the  side  into  the  stomach.  Through  this  opening  any  thing  could  be  passed 
into,  or  taken  from  the  stomach  :  or  the  stomach  could  be  examined  under  any  different 
circumstances.  In  about  ten  months  fom  the  recovery  of  St.  Martin,  a  kind  of  valve 
or  apron  began  to  grow  down  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  opening  of  the  stomach.  It 
hung,  so  to  speak,  within  the  opening  like  a  curtain,  retaining  the  food  ;  but  it  could 
be  pressed  in,  and  the  stomach  examined  as  before.  Dr.  B.  hastened  to  improve  the 
opportunity  ;  and  with  much  apparent  accuracy  and  particularity,  made  notes  of  his 
observatk-ns  and  experiments.  With  his  notes  in  hand,  and  the  results  of  so  many 
experiments  as  have  been  tried  on  man  and  animals,  we  may  advance  to  the  subjects 
under  consideration  with  considerable  assurance  of  being  compensated  with  positive 
knowledge. 

The  following  table  from  Dr.  Beaumont,  though  not  very  instructive,  as  perhaps 
there  would  be  few  persons  with  constitutions  precisely  like  that  of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  and 
consequently  few  whose  stomachs  would  require  the  p;ime  length  of  time  for  digesting 
food — perhaps  for  some  articles  longer,  and  for  others  shorter,  than  in  his  case  ;  yet  is 


TABLE, 

EXHIBITING  THE  AVERAGE  TIME  OF  DIGESTION  OF  CERTAIN  ARTICLES  OF  DIET. 


Articles. 

Prepara- 
tion. 

Time 

Articles, 

Prepara- 
tion. 

Pigs'  feet,  soused, 
Rice,       .... 
Tripe,  soused,     .     . 
Apples,  sweet, 
Trout,  salmon,  fresh, 

Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Boiled, 
Fried, 
Broiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Raw, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Broiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Roasted, 

Boiled, 

Roasted, 
Baked, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 

Warm'd, 

Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Baked, 
Raw, 
Boiled, 
Fricas'd, 
Baked, 
Raw, 
Raw, 
Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Broiled, 
Baked, 
Boiled, 
Boiled 
soft, 
Broiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 

h.  m. 
1 
1 
1 
1  30 
I  30 
1  30 
1  35 
1  45 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2  15 
2  18 

2  25 

•2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  30 

2  30 

2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  45 
2  45 
2  50 
2  55 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

Soup,  chicken,    .     . 
Pork  steak,       .     . 
Pork,  recently  salted, 
Oysters,  fresh,  .     . 
Mutton,  fresh, 
Bread,  corn,     .     . 
Carrot,  orange, 
Beef,  with  mustard, 
Sausage,      .     .     . 
Beef,  fresh,  lean,  dry, 
Bread,  wheat,  fresh, 
Butter,       .... 

Boiled, 
Broiled, 
Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Roasted, 
Baked, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Baked, 
Melted 

Venison  steak, 
Sago,    
Apples,  sour,  mellow, 
Cabbage  &  vinegar, 
Codfish,  cured,  dry, 
Eggs,  fresh,      .     . 
Liver,  beef's,  fresh, 
Milk, 

Catfish,  .... 
Cheese,  old,  strong, 

Eggs,  fresh,    .         j 

Fried, 
Raw, 
Boiled 
hard, 
Fried, 
Fried, 
Stewed, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 

Boiled, 

Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Fried, 
Coasted, 
Soiled, 
Coasted, 
Boiled, 

Boiled, 

broiled, 
?ried, 
3oiled, 
Boiled, 
Coasted, 
Boiled, 
7ried, 
Coasted, 
Boiled, 

Tapioca, 
Milk,    

Turkey,  wild,  .     . 

Flounder,  fresh,     . 
Oysters,  fresh,     .     . 
Potatoes,  Irish, 
Soup,  mutton,     .     . 
Soup,  oyster,    . 
Turnips,  flat,       .     . 
Beef,  fresh,  lean,      ) 
with  salt  only,     $ 
Corn,  green,  &  beans, 
Beets,      .... 
Beef,  fresh,  lean, 
Ducks,  domesticated, 
Fowl,  domestic, 

cated,                    \ 

Potatoes,  Irish,   .     . 
Pig,    ....*. 

Parsnips,  .... 
Meat  hashed  with  ) 
vegetables,           $ 
Lamb,  fresh,     .     . 
Goose,       .... 
Cake,  sponge,     .     . 
Cabbage  head, 
Beans,  pod,    .     .     . 
Chicken,  full-grown, 
Custard,  .... 
Apples,  sour,  hard, 
Oysters,  fresh,     .     . 
Bass,  striped,  fresh, 
Beef,  fresh,  lean,  rare, 
steak,       .     . 
Corn  cake,     .     .     . 
Dumpling,  apple, 

Eggs,  fresh,   .     .     j 
Mutton,  fresh    .     . 

Salmon,  salted,  . 
Soup,    beef,  vege-  } 
tables  &  bread,    $ 
Veal,  fresh,       .     . 
Pork,  recently  salted, 
Beef,  old  hard,  salted, 
Cabbage,     .     .     . 
Ducks,  wild, 
Suet,  mutton,   .     . 
Veal,  fresh,     .     .     . 
Pork,  fat  and  lean, 
Suet,  beef,  fresh, 

Pork,  recently  salted, 

HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  207 


Food  and  drink  should  be  neither  hot  nor  cold. 

[That  some  food  should  not  require  cooking  is  not  strange,  for 
instance  eggs.  These  are  already  prepared  to  form  the  various  parts 
of  an  animal,  and  why  should  they  need  much  further  preparation 
before  the  reception  of  their  ingredients  in  the  bloodvessels  1  Indeed, 
cooking  them  much,  changes  them  to  such  a  degree  that  they  are 
quite  difficult  of  digestion.  Raw  eggs  are  therefore  frequently  re- 
commended to  a  person  whose  digestive  organs  are  feeble.  Cabbage 
raw,  digests  much  easier  than  when  boiled ;  probably  because  its 
pores  become  closed  with  the  fatty  substance  in  which  it  is  cooked, 
and  by  the  effects  of  heat.  But  why  there  should  be  so  much 
difference  in  the  time  required  for  digesting  various  articles  of  food 
strongly  resembling  each  other,  and  why  in  some  cases  food  indigesti- 
ble in  health  should  be  quickly  digested  in  sickness,  and  why  an 
article  should  be  digested  with  difficulty  by  some  persons,  when 
generally  it  is  considered  wholesome,  cannot  be  determined.] 


SEC.  E. — Temperature  of  Food. 

303.  Food  should  be  neither  hot  nor  cold  when  eaten. 

[The  teeth  are  not  only  very  much  injured  by  hot  food  or  drink, 
but  the  tone  of  the  digestive  organs  is  entirely  destroyed.  The  skin 
of  the  hand  looks  very  badly,  after  it  has  been  immersed  in  warm 
water  for  a  little  while,  and  is  very  unhealthy  in  its  state,  bloodless 
comparatively  and  without  tone.  A  worse  effect  still  is  produced  on 
the  more  delicate  coats  of  the  skin.  Very  cold  food  and  drinks  are.  if 
any  thing,  still  worse  than  hot.  They  lower  the  temperature  of  the 
stomach  when  it  requires  to  be  raised.  Taken  between  meals,  ice 
cold  water  may  not  be  productive  of  exceeding  harm,  but  if  any  one 
will  put  his  hand  for  five  minutes  in  a  pitcher  of  ice  water,  and  then 
reflect  that  the  effect  on  the  stomach  must  be  still  greater.  I  think, 
he  will  conclude  that  cool,  and  not  cold  water,  is  best  for  him  to  drink. 
I  think,  people  would  frequently  find  it  unpleasant  to  hold  either 
those  hot  or  cold  things  in  the  mouth,  which  they  hurry  into  the 
stomach,  sometimes  indeed  with  much  despatch,  because  they  are  so 
uncomfortable  in  the  mouth.  If  a  person  will  watch  *an  animal  on  a 
warm  day.  I  think  he  will  learn  something  from  the  exhibitions  of 
instinct,  which  will  refuse  a  bucket  of  ice  water,  though  the  animal 
be  very  thirsty,  and  will  direct  the  animal  away  from  the  cold  spring 
rather  than  to  it.  Iced  creams,  desserts,  especially  at  meals  and  in 
the  evening,  are  very  bad.  The  temperature  of  the  stomach  must  be 

curious,  as  showjng  the  average  time  required  for  the  digestion  of  certain  articles  by 
him.  The  time  in  his  case  varied  much  in  different  experiments  ;  it  depended  upon 
his  health,  the  requirement  for  food,  the  quantity  eaten,  the  temperature  of  the  article, 
the  exhaustion  of  his  body  by  exercise,  upon  whether  he  took  vigorous  or  gentle  ex- 
ercise, or  slept  immediately  after  eating  ;  and'upon  whether  he  was  in  good  humor  or 
angry  when  or  immediately  after  eating  ;  and  sometimes  there  would  be  a  variation 
when  it  could  not  be  accounted  for. 


208       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Water  the  only  proper  drink. 

raised  when  food  is  digesting,  and  the  circulation  of  blood  must  be 
increased,  not  checked.  Dr.  Beaumont  testifies,  that  half  a  pint  of 
cold  liquid  being  passed  into  the  stomach  of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  the 
digestive  process  was  checked  for  some  time.  Sometimes  a  mouth- 
ful or  two  of  cold  water  will,  by  the  effects  of  re-action,  rouse  up,  and 
increase  the  circulation  of  the  stomach.  In  the  evening  eating  iced 
substances  must  be  bad,  as  the  powers  of  the  system  have  been  ex- 
hausted during  the  day,  especially  a  hot  day. 


SEC.  E. —  Condiments. 

304-  Condiments  are  usually  considered  to  include,  salt, 
vinegar,  spices,  mustard,  horse-radish,  and  all  those  things 
eaten  merely  to  increase  the  relish  for  food,  or  stimulate  the 
stomach  to  action. 

Salt  is  not  properly  a  condiment,  but  an  article  of  food,  of  consider- 
able importance,  though  it  is  required  in  very  small  quantities. 
Vinegar  may  also,  at  times,  be  considered  as  an  article  of  valuable 
food.  Spices  are  of  no  real  use,  and  the  less  of  them  in  food,  the 
better.  They  are,  however,  after  a  person  is  habituated  to  them,  of 
some  apparent  value  in  causing  the  food  to  relish.  The  appetite, 
however,  which  they  occasion,  is  an  unhealthy  one,  not  called  for  by 
the  wants  of  the  system,  and  had  better  not  exist ;  and  though  if  a 
very  small  quantity  of  spice  be  used,  it  will  be  of  no  importance  worth 
mentioning,  a  person  may  reflect  that  he  will  in  a  little  time  have  a 
better  relish  for  food,  if  he  use  it  without  spices.  But  such  use  of 
spices  as  is  very  frequent,  cannot  for  a  moment  be  tolerated  by  the 
physiologist.  What  would  a  man  think  of  often  applying  a  mustard 
poultice  to  the  same  part  of  the  skin,  or  washing  it  over  with  mustard 
water  every  day  1  True,  it  would  at  first  rouse  up  an  extraordinary 
action  of  the  skin  and  produce  a  glow ;  but  how  Ipng  would  it  be 
before  the  skin  would  become  very  unhealthy  ?  When  mustard  and 
the  like  are  swallowed  into  the  stomach,  it  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  applying  a  warm  mustard  poultice  to  the  stomach,  or  washing  it 
with  mustard  water.  If  people  would  not  do  the  to  stomach  what  they 
would  not  to  the  external  and  comparatively  tough  skin,  they  would 
avoid  many  a  derangement  of  that  organ. 

--/.      SEC.  ^.-— Drink. 

305.    Water  is  the  only  proper  drink  for  man. 

[Of  this  he  may,  sick  or  well,  always  take  as  much  as  will 
satisfy  thirst.  Water  needs  no  preparation  in  the  digestive  organs, 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  209 

Bad  and  deceptive  effects  of  alcohol. 

and  undergoes  no  decomposition  or  recomposition  in  the  system, 
therefore,  it  does  not  exhaust  the  strength  of  the  system.  Any  thing 
mingled  with  water  to  make  it  relish  better,  will  be  likely  to  cause  a 
person  to  take  too  much  of  it,  which  is  a  great  evil,  since  it  prevents 
the  rapid  nutrition  of  the  body,  and  lessens,  of  course,  a  man's  phy- 
sical and  mental  abilities.  It  prevents  the  production  and  distribution 
of  heat.  It  must  be  removed  by  the  kidneys,  which  are  thus  over- 
worked and  deranged.] 

[  7'ert  and  Coffee  are  universally  injurious.  They  cannot  contain  any  amount  of 
nourishment,  there  is  so  little  of  the  coffee  dissolved  in  the  beverage.  Their  effect  is 
produced  by  a  poison  disseminated  through  the  decoction,  which  acting  on  the  nervous 
system,  throws  it  into  an  unnatural  state,  and  things  dp  not  then  produce  precisely  the 
same  effect  they  otherwise  would.  Frequently  altering  the  state  of  the  nerves  in  this 
way,  at  last  permanently  deranges  them,  and  then  comes  dyspepsia,  trembling  at  the 
stomach,  bad  taste  in  the  mouth,  disturbed  sleep,  headaches,  palpitations  of  the  heart, 
trembling  of  the  hands,  aud  an  inability  to  sustain  intellectual  vigor,  &c.] 

[Alcoholic  beverages. — I  do  not  think  any  person  would  long  wish  to  continue  to 
make  frequent  applications  of  any  kind  of  alcoholics  to  the  external  skin.  They  are 
far  more  deleterious  to  the  system  when  taken  into  it.  They  are  most  deadly  poisons, 
and  all  the  more  to  be  dreaded  because  they  are  so  deceptive.  They  act  with  great 
power  upon  the  brain,  and  change  its  natural  to  an  unnatural  state.  Having  thus 
seized  upon  this  only  avenue,  through  which  communications  are  made  to  the  mind, 
the  most  vicious  reports  are  made  to  it,  and  it  is  most  woftilly  deceived  in  respect  to 
the  welfare  of  the  body.  It  is  made  to  believe  that  parts  are  warm,  which  are  in  fact 
cold,  and  that  the  muscles  are  in  a  good  condition  when  they  are  already  overdone,  and 
therefore,  a  man  cannot  trust  his  own  senses  as  to  the  effects  of  the  "  mocker."  Singu- 
lar as  it  seems  at  first,  he  has  no  means  of  knowing  what  effect  really  is  produced 
upon  him,  as  his  means  of  knowing  are  changed  from  a  natural  and  truth-telling  state, 
and  therefore,  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  in  the  least.  Thus  a  man  thinks,  by  the 
effect  of  a  glass  of  wine,  he  is  made  more  witty,  and  agreeable,  &c.,  than  he  is. 
Alcohol  passes  into  the  stomach  with  water,  and  from  that  organ  passes  into  the 
veins,  that  lead  from  the  stomach  to  the  liver,  every  part  of  which  is  visited  by  the 
health-destroying  poison.  It  then  comes  up  to  the  right  heart,  which,  after  feeling 
its  unhealthy  action,  throws  it  out  into  the  lungs.  They  work  out  of  the  system  a  part 
of  it  which  is  expelled  with  the  breaih,  causing  it  to  be  odorous.  Since  it  appears 
as  alcohol  in  the  breath,  it  lias  not  served  any  direct  purpose.  It  does  not  contain, 
any  nitrogen,  and  therefore  cannot  nourish.  It  has  not  been  decomposed,  therefore 
it  cannot  have  produced  any  heat.  What  the  lungs  do  not  remove,  returns  with 
the  blood  to  the  left  heart,  and  is  by  that  organ  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body, 
the  brain  receiving  a  large  share.  It  commits  its  ravages,  however,  in  all  parts  of 
the  body,  now  it  has  once  been  admitted  into  the  bloodvessels,  until  it  is  altogether 
removed  by  one  excreting  organ  or  another.  It  does  not  heat,  but  cools,  in  winter, 
lor  evaporating  from  the  lungs,  it  carries  with  it  heat.  In  summer,  it  heats  the 
system  because  it  deranges  the  action  of  the  skin.  It  appears  to  heat,  when  it  does  not, 
because  through  the  nerves  it  produces  similar  sensations  to  thoso»of  heat.  It  exhausts 
rather  than  strengthens  the  system,  because  it  prevents  the  nerves  from  signifying  to 
the  mind  the  true  state  of  the  muscles.  It  does  not  profit  digestion,  because  if  it  do 
?<iuse  the  food  to  be  digested  it  cannot  cause  a  need  for  it,  and  therefore  it  compels 
unnecessary  labor,  and  If  it  do  not  cause  food  to  be  digested,  it  does  harm  by  dead- 
.-ninir  the  sensations,  which  would  warn  the  mind  of  the  imprudent  course  it  was 
allowing.  It  does  not  prevent  taking  cold,  but  renders  a  man  more  likely  to  take 
cold,  as  it  causes  the  nervous  system  to  overlook  and  neglect  causes  of  chilliness. 
It  is  not  good  in  health  because  it  is  good  in  sickness,  but  is  one  of  those  things,  which 
are  medicines  in  sickness,  but  poisons  in  health.  It  makes  no  man  happier,  it  has 
made  thousands  miserable.  No  man  ever  drank  the  second  glass  who  never 
drank  the  first.  Every  man  is  human,  and  on  the  brain  of  every  man,  wine  acts  as  a 
deceiver.  It  changes  his  brain.  What  a  man  is  before  he  drinks,  he  is  not  after, 
he  cannot  be — let  him  not.  therefore,  think  himself  safe,  more  than  others  have  been.] 

['J'iittncco. — This  exceedingly  deleterious  poison  is  all  the  more  hurtful,  because  it 
acts  upon  the  nervous  system  in  such  a  way,  that  the  injury  it  does  the  system  cannot 
be  perceived  by  the  individual  himself;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  makes  him  believe 


210       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Why  difficult  to  break  off  the  use  of  tobacco.     How  to  be  done. 

he  is  gaining  a  benefit  from  his  most  deadly  enemy.  When  its  effects  are  gone,  it 
leaves  the  nervous  system  in  a  very  bad  state,  and  sometimes  quite  insupportable  to 
those  who  have  been  addicted  to  its  use  for  a  great  while.  This  state  creates  the 
strongest  longing  for  more  tobacco— on  account  of  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  break 
off  the  use  of  itlhan  of  alcohol,  which  can  and  should  be  abandoned  at  once  ;  and  the 
longer  a  person  is  without  it,  the  easier  it  is  for  him  to  deny  himself,  but  the  longer  he 
is  without  tobacco,  the  more  difficult  is  it  to  withstand  the  feeling.  Hence  why  so 
many  give  up  the  attempt.  Tobacco  should  be  abandoned  gradually" by  such.  A  little 
less  being  taken  every  week  or  month,  so  that  the  system  will  not  feel  it,  and  so  that 
a  person  may  be  entirely  free  from  the  use  of  it  in  eighteen  months  or  two  years.  The 
best  way  to  save  this  trouble  is  never  to  begin  its  use.  It  is  thoughtlessly  and  foolishly 
commenced,  and  sorrowfully  continued.  Its  use  makes  a  man  no  happier,  nor  does  it 
in  any  way  benefit  him.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  an  expensive  habit,  breaks  up  the 
health,  and  ultimately  produces  many  unhappy  hours,  the  cause  of  which  the  man, 
perhaps  does  not  know.  In  whatever  way  it  is  taken  its  poisonous  qualities  act  on  the 
nerves.  When  chewed  or  smoked,  it  causes  a  person  to  throw  out  much  saliva,  which 
should  pass  to  the  stomach,  or  else  ought  not  to  be  formed.  It  thus  enfeeble*  digestion. 
It  thus  also  creates  thirst,  and  especially  renders  a  person  liable  to  indulge  in  the  use 
of  beer  (small  or  large),  wine,  whisky,  brandy,  &c.  Some  of  the  juice  being  swal- 
lowed tends  directly  to  paralyze  the  nerves  of  the  stomach.  When  tobacco  is  smoked 
its  poison  enters  the  system  through  the  mouth  and  the  lining  of  the  lungs,  and  the 
whole  nervous  system  is  made  at  first  torpid  and  then  irritable.  When  a  person  is 
smoking  he  feels  quieted,  and  thinks  the  reconciling  effect  of  tobacco  very  fine;  the 
disquiet  and  irritability  which  follows  some  time  after,  he  does  not  attribute  to  the 
sesa\  or  he  would,  upon  balancing  the  account,  discard  it  from  among  the  friends  to 
his  happiness.  It  is  an  arrant  cheat.  Therefore,  the  man  who  thinks  a  segar.  after 
too  hearty  a  repast  of  greasv  fnod  is  a  good  thing,  because  it  prevents  him  from  feeling 
disturbed,  is  mistaken :  it  is  injurious,  for,  by  preventing  him  from  feeling  disturbed,  it 
will  cause  him  to  eat  in  the  same  manner  again.  The  man  who  thinks  that  using 
tobacco  benefits  him,  because  it  prevents  him  from  becoming  too  fat,  is  mistaken.  To 
prevent  that,  he  should  avoid  eating  fat-producing  food.  By  the  use  of  tobacco  he  is 
induced  to  eat  more,  rather  than  less,  and  thus  he  increases  the  duties  which  his  sys- 
tem ought  not  to  perform.  A  man  should  do  every  thing  which  will  preserve  his  nervous 
system"  in  a  healthy  state,  and  noihinz  aeainst  it.  Again,  the  air  is  public  property, 
and  a  person  has  no  right  to  load  it  with  foul  and  poisonous  matters  that  he  unneces- 
sarily breathes  out.  Look  in  the  mouth  of  a  person  who  uses  tobacco,  and  say  if  it  be 
agreeable  to  think  of  drawing  into  the  inmost  recesses  and  most  delicate  parts  of  the 
body  a  volume  of  air  which  has  been  breathed  through  and  partially  cleaned  out  such 
a  cavity,  to  carry  the  foul  substance  and  deposit  more  or  less  of  it  in  your  lungs. 
What  young  lady  can  think  of  tainting  her  breath  and  ruining  the  health  of  her 
nervous  system  by  taking  the  first  pinch  of  snuff,  no  matter  how" daintily  it  is  taken, 
and  from  a  gold  snuff-box,  if  you  please.  Oh  fie !  Ladies  were  intended  to  be  at- 
tractive, not  repulsive.  Takins  snuff  a/irmjs  makes  them  the  last,  and  it  is  the  first 
pinch  that  does  it.  Taken,  perhaps,  for  curiosity,  ';just  to  see  how  it  will  seem;" 
or  to  make  one  "sneeze."  Might  as  well  burn  you,  to  see  how  it  "would  seem." 
The  first  pinch  makes  the  " old  snuff-taker."  "The  first  glass"  makes  the  unhappy 
"man  (or  woman)  who  drinks."] 


CHAPTER   II. 

Digestive  Organs. 

SEC.  A. — The  Mouth. 

305.   TJie  mouth  may  be  divided  into  the  front  and  back 
mouth.      The   front  mouth  is  composed  of  the  jaws  and 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


211 


How  to  obtain  a  beautiful  face  and  fine  expression. 


palate  bones  as  a  framework.  The  muscles  of  the  cheeks, 
tongue,  and  palate.  The  lining  or  mucous  membrane.  The 
teeth.  The  salivary  glands.  The  back  mouth  commences 
at  the  back  of  the  tongue,  opens  in  front  above,  into  the  front 
mouth,  in  front  below  into  the  wind  wipe,  Fig.  78,  above  into 

the  nose,  and  below  into  a 
tube  continuing  to  the  sto- 
mach. Its  sides  are  compos- 
ed  of  muscles,  and  lined  with 
mucous  membrane. 


Fig.  78. 


[The  muscles  of  the  cheeks  are 
muscles  of  expression,  and  are 
very  quickly  and  involuntarily  act- 
ed on  by  the  emotions.] 

lUus.—The  child  first  smiles 
when  it  sleeps. 


Fig.  78. — Section  of  face  on  one  side  of 
the  division  of  the  nose.  1,  Nose.  2,  Vo- 
mer.  3,  Opening  into  the  nostril  behind  2. 
4,  Roof  of  nose.  ~  5,  Upper  jaw.  6,  Lower 
jaw.  7,  Tongue.  8.  Space  between  roof 
of  the  mouth  and  the  tongue.  9,  Hyoid  bone. 
10,  Epiglottis.  11,  Arytenokl  cartilage.  12, 
15,  Cncoid  cartilage.  13,  Membrane.  14, 
Thyroid  cartilage.  16,  Back  surface  of 
throat  and  oesophagus.  17,  Uvula  or 
"  hanging  point  in  the  mouth." 


Inf. — To  have  a  beautiful  face  and  fine  expression,  a  person  must 
cultivate  a  good  disposition,  humane  and  noble  emotions. 

[The  muscles  of  the  tongue,  lips,  and  palate,  are  used  in  speech.] 

Inf. — That  a  person  may  speak  distinctly,  they  must  be  properly 
exercised. 

[Tlic  muscles  of  the  palate,  by  stretching  it  horizontally,  cut  off  the 
back  mouth  from  the  nose,  and  by  bringing  it  down  perpendicularly, 
cut  off  the  back  mouth  from  the  front.  The  hanging  point,  called 
the  uvula,  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  terminations  of  muscles, 
sometimes  becomes  too  long,  and  irritates  the  throat.  Cold  water 
gargled  is  the  best  thing  to  try  first,  then  cold  decoction  of  oak  bark. 
It  does  no  harm  and  generally  not  much  good,  to  have  a  piece  of  it  cut 
off;  any  one  can  do  it  with  a  pair  of  keen  scissors.] 

[  The  lining  is  similar  to  that  of  the  stomach,  in  general  character, 


212 


ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Teeth  differ  in  their  structure,  and  decay  in  pairs. 


and  liable  to  the  same  general  diseases.  Canker  is  frequently  seen  in 
it,  usually  caused  by  the  use  of  improper  or  too  much  food.  The 
spots  may  be  touched  with  a  little  nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic), 
with  alum,  or  the  mouth  may  be  rinsed  with  borax  and  honey,  or,  with 
the  consent  of  the  physician,  some  borax  may  be  taken,  for  probably 
the  same  state  exists  in  the  stomach.] 

Inf.— The  doctor  looks  at  the  lining  in  the  mouth  to  judge  of  the 
state  of  the  stomach,  because  the  lining  of  the  mouth  is  one  part  of 
that  in  the  stomach. 

Fig.  79. 


Fig.  79.— 1,  2,  Incisors.    3,  Cuspid.    4,  5,  Bicuspid.    6,  7,  Molars.    8,  Wisdom. 

[  The  teeth  are  of  great  importance.  They  not  only  add  to  personal 
beauty,  but  serve  to  maintain  health.  Their  composition  is  peculiar. 
The  second  set  is  forming  in  infancy,  some  of  them  even  before  the 
first  set  have  appeared.  If  the  little  child  do  not  receive  the  right 
kind  of  food,  the  teeth  will  not  be  rightly  formed,  and  because  it 
does  not,  is  probably  one  reason  \vhy  teeth  decay  so  early  and  in 
pairs,  for  we  are  told  that  the  teeth  of  the  same  person  are  sometimes 
very  different  in  their  structure,  some  crumble  very  easily,  some  split 
and  sliver,  some  are  solid  and  lasting,  and  this  occurs  in  pairs  of  teeth. 
We  are  also  told  that  decay  commences  usually  in  the  corresponding 
parts  of  the  same  pairs  of  teeth,  showing  that  at  one  time  the  child  re- 
ceived good  food,  at  another  it  did  not,  or  else  that  disease  prevented 
its  proper  use.] 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  213 

How  to  take  care  of  the  teeth. 

Inf. — Here  is  another  proof  that  a  young  child  should  be  fed  upon 
milk  and  nothing  else. 

[The  teeth  are  composed  of  bony  substance  and  enamel.  The 
last  is  what  is  seen  in  the  mouth.  It  is  a  thin  shell,  like  the  glazing 
of  a  plate.  It  is  exceedingly  hard,  and  intended  to  protect  the  inside 
of  the  tooth.  It  is  not  in  case  of  man,  however,  intended  to  be  used 
in  crushing  bones,  cracking  nuts,  or  the  like.  It  will  also  be  cracked 
by  heat  and  cold.J 

Illns. — A  plate  on  which  a  pie  has  been  baked  is  full  of  "  glaze 
cracks."  so  will  the  glazing  of  the  inside  of  a  pitcher  be,  in  which  water 
is  kept  in  a  chamber  during  cold  nights. 

[The  teeth  of  some  persons  will  be  noticed  full  of  "  glaze  cracks." 
Through  these  any  fluids  from  the  mouth  can  pass,  and  very  badly 
injure  the  inside  substance,  which  begins  to  decay,  and  ere  a  person 
knows  it,  his  tooth  "crushes  in"  and  is  lost.] 

Inf.  a. — Cracking  nuts  with  the  teeth,  or  prying  upon  them  with 
knives,  &c.,  bending  pins,  or  straightening  them,  or  the  same  in  re- 
gard to  hooks  arid  eyes,  even  ''biting  off  threads"  of  common  cotton 
is  ba-1  as  sometimes  the  teeth  slip  off  and  hammer  together,*  untying 
knots  with  the  teeth,  "  pulling  out  things"  with  the  teeth,  the  use  of  hot 
drinks  or  food,  (tea,  coffee,  puddings,  &c.)  and  the  use  of  iced  water, 
creams,  or  desserts,  "sucking  icicles,"  eating  snow,  &c.,  must  be  very 
bad  for  the  teeth. 

////.  b. — The  mouth  should  be  frequently  brushed  out  with  a  brush 
of  medium  stiffness,  passed  not  across  the  teeth  merely,  but  up  and 
down  and  back  of  them. 

[As  soon  as  a  tooth  begins  to  decay,  the  decayed  part  should  be 
carefully  cleaned  out  by  a  skilful  dentist,  and  the  cavity  well  filled.^] 

[When  the  first  set  of  teeth  become  loose  they  should  be  removed, 
that  the  teeth  of  the  second  set  may  come  into  their  proper  places. 
If  any  of  the  second  set  appear  on  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  jaw, 
the  lirst  tooth  should  be  removed  if  it  be  not  loose.  Parents  should 
frequently  notice,  to  learn  in  season  about  these  things.  If  the  teeth 
be  irregular  and  crowded  when  the  child  is  yet  very  young,  it  need 
not  be  minded  ;  probably  the  jaw  will  become  larger,  and  give  room 
for  them,  when  they  will  gradually  assume  the  best  places.] 

306.  A  gland  is  a  part  where  a  great  extent  of  surface  is 
presented  in  a  small  space,  and  in  which  a  fluid  is  formed 
from  the  blood. £ 

*  This  is  the  probable  reason  why  the  teeth  of  so  many  ladies  are  decayed  at  the  front 
corners?  and  inner  edges. 

i  From  my  own  experience  I  can  testify  that  where  cavities  are  larso,  proper  kinds 
of  composition  are  much  better  than  sold,  last  longer,  and  have  no  bad  effect  on  health. 
I  havo  compositions  often  years'  standing  in  some  of  my  teeth. 

J  There  are  in  the  body  three  kinds  of  parts  called  glands,  but  two  of  them  are  not, 
properly  speaking,  glands,  for  there  is  no  similarity  between  their  arrangement  or  mode 
of  doing  duty  and  the  glands  proper. 


214 


ANATOMY.    PHYSIOLOGY      AND    PATHOLOGY 


Important  action  of  the  mind  upon  the  glands. 


[Various  forms  of  glands  exist  therefore.  A  simple  gland  being 
a  mere  cavity  or  sac.  a  more  compound  gland  consisting  of  several  of 
these,  opening  into  one  tube,  as  in  Fig.  80. J 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  SO.—  a,  One  of  the  simplest  glands 
of  an  animal,  b,  Tube  opening  into  the 
mouth. 


Fig.  81. 


[Several  such  tubes  opening 
into  others,  and  these  again  into 
a  common  one,  form  a  still 
more  compound  gland  as  seen 
in  Fig.  81.  The  sides  of  these 
sacs  are  exceedingly  delicate, 
and  contain  a  network  of  blood- 
vessels of  almost  infinite  deli- 
cacy, through  which  the  blood 
is  constantly  and  rapidly  flow- 
ing, certain  parts  of  it  con- 
stantly oozing  in  larger  or 
smaller  quantity  as  the  case 
requires  into  the  sac.  from  the 
sac  into  its  tube:  and  so  on  to 
the  place  where  it  is  needed. 
The  quantity  of  fluid  will  de- 
pend upon  the  quantity  of  blood 
'received  by  the  gland,  the  quality 
of  the  blood  and  the  action  of  the 
nervous  influences  which  directly 
control  the  actwn  of  the  gland. 

Inf. — As  the  thought  of  de- 
licious food  causes  a  flow  of 
saliva,  probably  the  action  of 
the  mind  will  be  as  great  on 
all  the  glands,  and  the  impor- 
tance of  preserving  a  good  state 
of  the  intellect  and  emotions. 
if  a  person  wish  health,  is  evi- 
dent. 


Fig.  81. — Part  of  a  compound  gfand, 
with  tubes  and  cryptae  laid  open.  The 
black  lines  represent  the  larger  blood- 
vessels of  the  part.  The  causes  and 
appearance  of  the  lobules  are  also 
seen. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  215 

How  an  infant  should  be  fed. 

[The  salivary  glands  are  three  in  number  upon  each  side.  One  at 
the  outside  of  the  jaw  just  in  front  of  the  lower  part  of  the  ear,  called 
parotid.  One  just  within  the  centre  of  the  side  of  the  jaw,  called  the 
submaxillary  (under  jaw).  One  within  the  lower  jaw  a  little  farther 
forward,  called  the  sublingual  (under  tongue).  The  parotid  can  be 
easily  felt.  A  tube  leads  from  it,  (which,  like  a  cord,  can  be  felt 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  cheek,)  and  opens  at  a  roughish  spot  which 
can  be  felt  by  the  tongue  at  the  centre  of  the  cheek.  From  the  other 
glands-  tubes  open  by  the  side  of  the  tongue.  One  or  all  of  these  sali- 
vary glands,  are  affected  when  a  person  has  the  mumps,  and  till  they 
all  have  been  affected  a  person  is  liable  to  that  disease.  The  parts 
should  not  be  bandaged,  as  usual,  but  rather  kept  cool ;  the  diet 
should  be  less  in  quantity  than  usual,  and  a  person  should  take  every 
pains  not  to  take  cold  till  the  disease  is  removed.] 

307.  The  use  of  tJie  mouth  is,  to  .receive  the  food,  masti- 
cate it,  mingle  it  with  the  saliva,  and   thus  prepare  it  for 
more  easy  digestion  in  the  stomach. 

Inf. — The  food  should  be  thoroughly  chewed  before  it  is  swal- 
lowed. 

[Many  persons  swallow  their  food  too  hastily.  Ut.  Ik-ciiuse  it  is 
so  hot.  2d.  Because  they  are  in  a  hurry.  3d.  From  habit.  It  should 
not  be  taken  into  the  mouth  hot.  If  a  person  be  in  haste  he  should 
eat  but  little,  but  eat  that  little  well.  A  habit  of  eating  food  hastily 
should  be  abandoned  at  once.  Dr.  Beaumont  abundantly  testifies  to 
us  that  eating  food  hastily  is  very  productive  of  injury,  and  many 
cases  of  dyspepsia  are  produced  and  continued  by  eating  too  fast.  If 
liquid  food  be  eaten,  it  should  be  detained  by  some  solid  food  com- 
bined with  it.  that  it  may  be  mingled  with  saliva. 

Elus—  Milk  should  be  crumbed  with  bread. 

[The  infant  has  been  designed  to  receive  food  by  drawing  the 
food  into  the  mouth,  which  mingles  it  with  sajiva.  It  should 
never  be  fed  with  a  spoon.*] 

308.  The  food  is  gathered  by  the  tongue  into  a  ball  and 
rolled  back  into  the  lower  parts  of  the  back  mouth,  the  upper 
parts  of  which  press  it  down  into  the  tube,  called  the  gullet, 
oesophagus,  or  meat-pipe. 

*  The  best  way  is.  to  take  a  piece  of  fine  sponge,  cut  it  into  the  shape  of  the  finger, 
and  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long.  Half  an  inch  from  one  end  tie  a  string,  but  not 
very  tightly,  put  the  other  end  into  a  bottle  holding  three  or  four  ounces,  with  a  smooth 
nose,  and  wind  the  ends  of  the  string  around  it  to  prevent  the  child  from  drawing  out 
the  sponge.  Scald  the  bottle  and  the  sponge,  after  each  time  using  them.  For  more 
upon  this  point,  see  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Care  of  Children,  by  the  author  of  this 
work. 


216  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Infants  should  have  no  small  playthings. 

[The  gullet  sometimes  refuses  to  receive  it,  and  it  is  then  either 
pressed  back  up  into  the  mouth,  or  is  caught  under  the  valve  or  epi- 
glottis, against  which  the  windpipe  is  raised  up  when  we  swallow, 
and  crowded  into  the  windpipe  (goes  down  the  wrong  way).  In  case 
of  little  children  especially,  this  is  liable ;  for  as  nature  has  not  in- 
tended they  should  receive  solid  food  into  the  stomach ;  the  gullet 
which  acts  involuntarily  and  in  accordance  with  the  wants  of  the  sys- 
tem, refuses  to  receive  it.] 

Inf. — The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  that  infants  should  not 
have  any  chance  of  putting  small  things,  buttons,  beans,  &c.,  into 
their  mouth,  nor  should  they  be  fed  on  any  thing  solid. 

309.  The  ring  in  front  of  the  food,  (see  figs.  43,)  re- 
laxes or  dilates,  the  one  behind  contracts,  and  thus  the  food 
is  forced  into  the  stomach. 

[The  last  one,  called  the  sphincter  of  the  cardiac  (heart,  because 
near  it,)  opening  of  the  stomach,  remains  contracted  till  another 
mouthful  comes  down,  when  it  opens,  to  again  contract  and  inclose 
the  food  in  the  stomach.] 

Inf. — When  a  person  is  retching  and  trying  to  vomit,  but  cannot, 
because  the  lower  ring  muscles  of  the  oesophagus  are  contracted,  it 
will  be  well  to  swallow  some  water,  as  when  the  muscles  relax  to  let 
in  the  water  they  can  be  taken  advantage  of,  and  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  expelled. 


SEC.  B. — Stomach. 

310.  The  lining  of  the  meat-pipe  at  its  lower  end  is 
formed  into  a  pouch. 

[It  is  called  mucous  membrane,  as  it  is  in  other  parts  of  its  extent, 
on  account  of  the  viscid  substance  poured  upon  its  inner  surface  to 
keep  it  in  a  proper  state.  It  is  somewhat  different  from  the  lining  of 
the  mouth,  and  has  a  beautiful,  soft,  velvety,  and  delicate  appearance 
in  health.  In  its  sides  are  found  a  great  many  divisions  of  arteries 
and  veins,  and  millions  of  capillaries.  When  the  blood  is  actively 
pouring  to  the  stomach,  it  has  a  lively  flushed  appearance1,  as  when 
the  cheek  is  suffused  with  the  tints  of  modesty.  When  the  circula- 
tion is  more  quiet,  the  color  of  the  stomach  is  a  pale  yellowish  pink 
cast.  As  soon  as  food  is  received  by  the  stomach,  and  sometimes 
before  it  leaves  the  mouth,  the  nervous  influences  begin  to  be  exerted, 
and  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  stomach  gradually  begins  to  increase, 
and  soon  minute  drops  of  gastric  juice  are  oozing  upon  the  inner 
surface  of  the  stomach,  ready  to  operate  those  changes*  in  the  food 
that  are  required.] 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  217 

Digestion  requires  that  other  parts  than  the  stomach  should  be  in  repose. 

Inf.  a. — As  soon  as  food  is  received,  there  should  be  a  cessation  of 
actions  which  require  blood  in  unusual  quantities  elsewhere.  Labor 
of  body  or  mind  must  be  suspended. 

Inf.  b. — As  the  action  of  the  stomach  takes  place  under  nervous 
influences,  they  must  not  be  given  to  other  parts  when  food  is  taken. 
If  the  system  be  unwell,  the  nervous  influences  cannot  be  exerted,  the 
gastric  juice  cannot  be  formed,  and  it  is  useless  to  take  food,  as  it  will 
only  irritate  the  stomach. 

[If  the  process  be  watched,  the  flow  of  blood  will  be  found  to  in- 
crease, and  the  gastric  juice  to  be  formed  very  rapidly,  till  there  is 
sufficient  to  digest  all  the  food  that  the  system  requires,  for  as  the 
action  was  commenced  for  the  good  of  the  system,  it  ceases  when  the 
wants  of  the  system  are  satisfied.  It  does  not  commerce  because 
food  was  swallowed,  for  if  food  be  taken  when  no  food  is  required  the 
stomach  remains  a  passive  recipient  of  it,  no  quickening  of  the  cir- 
culation, no  flow  of  gastric  juice  occurs  ;  and  if  a  person  continue 
to  eat  after  he  has  eaten  enough,  the  fluid  does  not  flow  on.  but  the 
action  of  the  organ  diminishes,  as  if  only  the  right  portion  had  been 
eaten ;  and  the  food  in  excess  prevents  the  easy  and  rapid  digestion 
of  that  which  is  needed,  and  ultimately  causes  disease  in  the  stomach ; 
so  also  does  food  taken  when  it  is  not  needed.] 

[  The  length  of  time  during  which  increased  action  will  continue, 
varies  from  five  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  depending  on  the  quantity 
of  food  required,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  blood,  and  the  health  of 
the  system.  After  this  period  has  passed,  the  blood  may  be  called  off 
to  other  parts,  and  so  may  the  nervous  influences.] 

Inf.  a. — We  ought  to  repose  about  half  an  hour  after  each  meal. 

Inf.  b. — As  the  mind  is  so  powerful  in  causing  the  flow  of  saliva, 
and  as  Dr.  Beaumont  testifies  that  it  is  equally  so,  in  causing  a  free 
flow  of  gastric  juice,  we  ought  to  produce  a^  lively  state  of  the  emo- 
tions after  repasts,  indulging  in  hearty  laughs,  (fee. 

[And  the  natural  effects  of  wholesome  food  properly  eaten,  is  to 
produce  a  pleasant  state  of  mind.] 

[After  the  blood  has  passed  through  the  capillaries,  and  the  sub- 
stances to  form  the  gastric  juice  are  taken  from  it,  it  passes  on  into  the 
stomach  veins  which  unite  together  and  open  into  the  portal  vein 
which  leads  on  into  the  liver,  which  begins  to  receive  more  blood  im- 
mediately after  the  stomach  does,  and  in  perfect  correspondence  with 
it,  so  that  when  the  stomach  has  digested  a  large  quantity  of  food, 
the  liver  will  receive  a  large  quantity  of  blood,  from  which  it  can 
form  the  large  quantity  of  bile  required  when  the  food  comes  on  into 
the  second  stomach.] 

Inf.— The  action  of  the  liver  is  necessarily  increased  and  dimin- 
ished when  it  ought  to  be. 

[If  the  gastric  juice  be  much  diluted,  it  cannot  act  on  the  food  pro- 
perly. Hence,  the  gastric  juice  will  not  flow  if  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  have  not  a  certain  consistence,  about  that  of  paste.  When 
any  fluid  is  taken,  therefore,  when  food  is  required,  the  first  action  of 


218       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Water  in  sufficient  quantity  will  act  as  an  emetic. 

the  stomach  is  to  remove  the  liquid  into  the  bloodvessels,  from  which 
if  it  be  not  wanted  it  is  removed  by  the  action  of  the  kidneys.] 

////. — If  a  person  do  not  feel  thirsty  he  should  not  take  liquid 
foods  or  drink  with  his  meals. 

["  To  mingle  the  gastric  juices  with  the  food  in  the  stomach,  layers  of 
muscular  fibres  surround  it  on  every  side,  and  by  their  alternate 
contractions  and  .dilations  keep  the  contents  of  the  stomach  well 
mixed.  When,  portion  after  portion,  it  is  digested,  they  cause  it  to 
pass  into  the  second  stomach  until  at  last  all  having  gone,  by  con- 
traction they  loosely  shrink  and  fold  up  the  stomach  in  a  small  space.] 

[  Tlic  peritoneal  coat  is  found  on  the  outside  of  most  of  the  organs 
of  the  abdomen,  as  seen  in  Fig.  82. 

[If  drink  be  received  when  a  person  is  thirsty  it  wiL  be  taken  into 
the  veins  of  the  stomach  at  once,  almost  in  a  moment,  and  pass  of 
course  into  all  parts  of  the  body.  If  it  be  taken  when  a  person  is  not 
thirsty,  it  will  pass  into  the  veins  more  slowly,  which  will,  however, 
receive  it,  and  thus  the  bloodvessels  become  uncomfortably  full.] 

Inf. — To  drink  needlessly  must  be  harmful,  as  the  fulness  of  the 
vessels  will  not  only  cause  dulness  by  pressure  on  the  brain,  but  will 
prevent  renewal,  and  of  course  action  of  the  parts. 

[Yet  sometimes  it  may  be  advisable,  viz.,  when  we  wish  to  in- 
crease the  action  of  the  kidneys  and  skin,  (which  last  can  be  done  by 
keeping  the  skin  warm,  as  when  a  person  retires  to  a  warm  bed, 
having  drank  freely  of  water,)  or  when  we  are  about  to  be  exposed 
to  contagion  or  like  causes  of  disease ;  as,  when  the  vessels  are  full 
they  will"  not  be  so  likely  from  any  source  to  receive  any  thing,  as 
when  they  are  empty.] 

Inf. — We  should  always  drink  before  going  out  in  the  morning, 
in  a  fever  and  ague  district,  or  when  an  epidemic  prevails,  as  the 
perspiration  during  the  night  has  removed  fluid,  and  the  bloodvessels 
will  very  easily  drink  in,  or  absorb,  almost  any  thing.  When,  also,  we 
go  into  a  sick  room,  we  should  drink,  and  in  all  such  cases  clothe  the 
system  so  warmly  as  to  keep  up  a  very  gentle  perspiration.] 

[If  water  be  rapidly  drank  when  a  person  is  not  thirsty,  or  if 
taken  in  sufficient  quantity  at  any  time,  a  part  of  it  will  accumulate 
in  the  stomach,  and  if  not  evacuated  by  vomiting,  will  pass  off  in  part 
into  the  second  stomach,  and  thus  act  as  a  cathartic.  If  more  still  be 
taken,  the  stomach  will  at  last  be  filled  and  uncomfortably  distended, 
and  the  system  will  be  desirous  of  unloading  it ;  and  when  the  mus- 
cles of  the  oesophagus  relax  to  allow  another  portion  to  pass  in,  the 
muscles  engaged  in  vomiting  take  advantage  of  the  favorable  state  of 
things,  and  expel  the  entire  contents  of  the  stomach,  and  with  great 
ease,  because  the  stomach  is  distended  and  no  contracting  oesophagus 
opposes.* 

*  Mere  water  is  probably  the  best  emetic  a  person  can  take,  if  the  object  be  to 
merely  evacuate  the  stomach.  When  the  physician  gives  an  emetic,  it  is  for  addition- 
al purposes,  frequently  The  water  should  not  be  taken  so  cool  as  to  cause  the  least 
chill,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  so  warm  as  to  cause  any  nausea,  but  it  must  be  poured 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


219 


Peritoneal  coat  of  the  abdominal  organs. 


Fig.  82. 


Fig.  82.— Represents  a  sec- 
tion of  the  middle  portion  of 
the  abdomen.  The  organs  are 
somewhat  displaced  and  dis- 
proportioned,  the  chief  object 
being  to  exhibit  the  peritoneal 
coat.  Commencing  at  1, it  dan 
be  traced  up  under  and  lining 
D,  the  diaphragm  from  which 
it  is  "reflected"  at  3,  to  the 
liver  L,  over  the  front  edge  of 
which  it  can  be  followed,  and 
under  the  liver  to  4,  where  it 
turns  on  to  the  stomach,  and  at 
6,  passes  down  in  front  of  the 
abdominal  organs  to  a  greater 
or  less  distance,  when  it  turns 
upward,  forming  a  kind  of 
apron,  commonly  called  the 
caul,  a  beautiful  thin  membrane 
in  appearance,  netted  over 
with  lat,  being  the  part  butch- 
ers put  upon  the  front  quar- 
ters of  veal  to  give  them  a  bet- 
ter appearance,  as  the  fat  caul 
from  a  good  animal  can  be 
made  to  improve  the  appear- 
ance of  an  indifferent  one.  It 
can  be  traced  to  the  colon  C, 
one  part  of  which  it  covers, 
and  tnen  leaves  it  to  go  to  the 
backbone,  touching  upon  and 
partly  covering  the  duodenum 
D,  when  again  it  comes  away 
for  some  distance  to  form  the 
outer  coat  of  the  small  intes- 
tine ;  the  general  outline  of  its 
convolutions  being  shown  by  I. 
The  peritoneal  coat  can  then 
be  followed  back  to  the  spinal 
column,  the  two  layers  adher- 
ing at  10,  forming  the  ribbon- 
like  part  called  the  mesentery, 
between  the  two  thicknesses  of 
which  the  bloodvessels,  the 

nerves,  the  lacteals,  and  the  glands  of  the  intestine  are  found.  After  continuing  in  a 
similar  manner  about  the  entire  length  of  the  second  stomach,  ^t  follows  down  to  11, 
turns  over  the  vessicle  B,  and  passes  up  from  12  to  1,  lining  the  walls  of  the  abdomen, 
being  there  commonly  called  the  film.  The  peritoneal  coat,  or  peritoneum,  adheres 
or  grows  to,  or  rather  is  a  part  of  those  organs  upon  which  it  is  found  ;  the  surface 
opposite  to  that  which  adheres,  being  "free,"  viz.,  not  adherent  to  any  thing,  but  con- 
tinually moistened  with  a  very  glairy  fluid.  In  general  appearance,  the  peritoneum  is 
a  light  pearl-colored,  dense,  strong  membrane,  rather  easily  torn  off  from  the  parts  to 
which  it  belongs.  If  attention  be  again  bestowed  upon  the  figure,  what  appears 
another  membrane,  will  be  seen  at  2,  which  passing  down  covers  one  part  of  the 
stomach,  adhering  at  4,  to  the  peritoneum  previously  traced,  and  also  at  5,  from  which 
it  follows  down»  forming  part  of  the  caul,  the  two  layers  adhering  to  each  other.  It 
can  then  be  traced  up  to  the  transverse  colon  ;  the  surfaces  between  which  6  is  placed, 
not  adhering,  but  are  moistened  by  serous  fluid.  It  forms  the  outer  coat  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  colon,  adhering  to  its  companion  between  the  colon  and  D,  the  upper  part 
of  which  it  covers  when  passing  over  the  pancreas,  it  is  found  at  2  again.  [Thus  all 
the  organs  of  the  abdomen  may  move  upon  each  other  without  the  slightest  degree  of 
friction.  The  reader  must  not  gain  an  idea  that  there  are  any  spaces  between  the  organs. 
They  are  in  close  contact,  unless  separated  by  collections  of  water  in  case  of  dropsy 


220  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Duodenum — Pancreas — Liver,  &c. 

which,  from  the  great  extent  of  surface,  may  be  very  great  in  quantity  in  a  short  time. 
Just  beneath  the  free  surface  of  the  peritoneum  a  beautiful  network  of  bloodvessels  ia 
found,  the  number  of  which  is  almost  infinite,  whence  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum 
is  apt  to  be  very  serious,  and  must  not  be  trifled  with.  The  healthful  fulfilment  of  ifc» 
duties  requires  also  the  action  of  nervous  influence,  and  as  the  action  of  the  nervous 
influence  as  well  as  the  structure,should  be,  and  is,  similar  in  the  whole  extent  of  the 
peritoneum,  disease  of  any  part  very  quickly  extends  under  the  slightest  aggravation. 
Though  slightly  irregular,  attention  may  here  be  drawn,  as  the  cut  will  enforce  the 
idea,  to  the  fact  that  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  are  composed  of  many  different  parts, 
differently  constructed,  and  requiring  nervous  influence  differing  in  its  effects  and  de- 
gree ;  hence  subject  to  different  diseases  and  by  a  variety  of  causes,  all  which  things 
exhibit,  in  a  striking  light,  the  danger  of  tampering  with  the  laws  of  health,  and  the 
importance  of  the  greatest  discretion,  learning,  and  experience  on  the  part  of  an  ad- 
viser when  disease  exists. 

[  The  general  position  and  place  which  the  stomach  occupies,  varies 
with  the  quantity  of  food  and  drink  taken,  and  with  the  drawing  in 
and  throwing  out  of  the  breath,  as  must  necessarily  be  the  case.] 


SEC.  C. — Second  Stomach,  fyc. 

311.  The  lining  of  the  second  stomach  continues  on  from 
the  small  extremity  of  the  stomach  in  the  form  of  a  tube, 
the  first  part  of  which,  for  twelve  fingers'  breadth,  is  called 
duodenum.  About  half  the  remainder  has  the  name  of  jeju- 
num, and  the  remainder  is  called  the  ileum. 

[The position  of  the  duodenum  is  seen  in  Fig.  17.  About  three 
inches  from  where  it  leaves  the  first  stomach  there  is  an  opening, 
sometimes  two,  through  which  it  receives  the  pancreatic  juice,  the 
bile,  and  the  gall.] 

[  Tfie  pancreas  we  know  but  little  about.  It  is  a  gland  composed 
of  sacs  arranged  in  clusters,  and  opening  into  tubes,  all  of  which  at 
last  terminate  in  one.  The  fluid  has  the  general  appearance  of  saliva, 
but  is  not  precisely  like  it.  It  probably  passes  into  the  second  sto- 
mach all  the  while,  but  in  greater  or  less  quanities,  as  the  nervous 
system  shall  influence.  Its  effect  upon  the  chyme  is  not  known.] 

[  The  hver  is  a  glanri  of  very  large  size  and  very  firm.  The  fluid 
found  in  it  is  the  bile,  ttie  use  of  which  in  the  second  process  of  di- 
gestion, seems  to  be  very  important,  though  precisely  what  it  is,  is  not 
known.  Some  think  it  flows  constantly  into  the  duodenum ;  some, 
and  probably  more  correctly,  think  it  flows  only  when  food  is  there  to 
be  acted  upon.] 

down  in  gr<>at  plenty,  and  quickly.  It  will  act  the  easiest  of  any  emetic.  I  have  my- 
self used  it  many  times  when,  from  carelessness,  I  had  eaten  too  much,  ami  felt  the 
effects,  and  I  have  never  found  it  in  the  least  degree  disagreeable.  Different  persona 
will  require  different  quantities.  I  usually  find  from  one  quart  to  five  pints  sufficient. 
The  only  rule  is,  drink  till  it  operates,  which  it  surely  will,  if  some  poison  have  not 
been  taken. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  221 


Bile  and  gall  do  nor  directly  pass  into  the  stomach. 

[  Tke  gall  is  found  in  the  gall  bladder,  but  is  thought  by  some  to 
be  bile,  somewhat  changed.  That  is,  some  think  that  in  the  intervals 
of  digestion  the  bile  passes  down  the  tube  leading  from  the  liver  to 
the  duodenum  (see  Fig.  17),  as  far  as  to  where  the  tube  from  the  gall 
bladder  opens,  when  it  turns  up  and  passes  into  that  sac  to  remain  till 
required,  and  while  there  undergoes  certain  changes.  Others  think 
gall  is  entirely  formed  in  the  gall  bladder,  viz.,  that  it  is  a  large  sac 
or  crypta.  Which  idea  is  correct,  is  not  certain,  but  probably  the 
last.] 

[Neither  the  gall  or  bile  pass  directly  into  the  stomach,  and  it  may 
be  asked  how  they  can  be  evacuated  wher.  a  person  vomits.  The 
retching  produced  by  vomiting,  that  is,  the  pressure  of  the  muscles 
on  the  sides  on  the  liver,  cause  bile  &c.  to  flow  out  into  the  duodenum, 
and  then  along  back  into  the  stomach.  Except  for  some  such  cause, 
it  rarely  if  ever  happens  that  bile  or  gall  is  to  be  found  in  the  sto- 
mach.] 

Inf.— The  common  idea  of  "bilious  stomach,"  and  "too  much 
bile  on  the  stomach,"  must  be  incorrect. 

[Tke  o td side  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  second  stomach  is 
covered  with  two  kinds  of  muscles.  One,  in  the  form  of  rings,  a  band 
of  which  are  quite  thick  and  strong  at  the  opening  from  the  stomach, 
and  called  the  pylorus.  The  second  extends  longitudinally,  and  by 
contracting  shortens  the  second  stomach.  By  the  combined  action 
of  these  the  contents  of  the  second  stomach  are  moved  along,  while 
in  the  mean  time  they  are  growing  less  by  the  removal  of  chyle,  and 
at  the  same  time  receiving  additions,  excreted  from  the  blood.  What 
is  left  from  the  chyme,  and  what  of  excretion  is  received,  are  passed 
on  into  the  colon.] 

[  Tke  second  stomach  is  covered  with  a  portion  of  the  peritoneum, 
which,  coming  from  the  backbone,  passes  around  the  muscular  coat 
of  th'e  second  stomach,  and  then  turns  back  to  the  backbone  again, 
thus  being  double,  or  having  two  thicknesses,  called  mesentery,  be- 
tween the  second  stomach  and  the  spinal  column.  Between  these 
the  bloodvessels,  lacteals,  &c.,  are  situated.  The  length  of  this  part 
of  the  peritoneum  determines  the  motion  allowed  to  the  second 
stomach.] 

[The  length  of  the  second  stomach,  and  also  its  diameter,  varies 
very  much  in  different  animals  and  in  different  persons,  signifying 
that  the  bulk  of  the  food,  different  persons  may  eat,  should  vary. 
Those  persons  who  have  this  part  very  long  and  capacious,  %re  not 
inclined  to  be  fond  of  concentrated  food,  and  vice  versa,  where  it  is 
short  and  small,  approaching  the  carnivorous  classes,  they  are  inclined 
to  eat  concentrated  food.]* 

*  A  singular  fact  in  regard  to  the  frog  may  be  interesting.  The  young  of  the 
frog  is  adapted  to  live  upon  seeds  and  roots,  viz  ,  is  a  granivorous  animal,  and  the 
second  stomach  is  long.  When  the  animal  undergoes  its  changes,  it  becomes  a 


222       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Importance  of  daily  action  of  the  colon. 

[The  position  and  space  which  the  second  stomach  occupies,  de- 
pends upon  its  contents,  the  inspiration  and  expiration  of  the  air,  the 
fulness  of  the  first  stomach,  &c.] 

[The  Second  Stomach  is  exceedingly  injured  by  receiving  food 
which  has  not  been  digested  in  the  first  stomach ;  by  not  receiving  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  waste  food,  and  excreted  substance  to  act  upon, 
and  by  exposure  of  the  skin  to  the  cold.] 

[  The  Colon  is  a  convenient  receptacle  of  substance  from  the  second 
stomach.  Its  position  is  peculiar,  as  seen  by  Fig.  1  PI.  3.  From 
that,  and  its  pouched  arrangement,  its  contents  are  very  liable  to  be 
detained.  That  part  of  it,  which  crosses  the  body  just  below  the 
stomach,  is  very  often  the  seat  of  pains,  which  are  sometimes  called 
bilious  colic,  sometimes  attributed  to  the  stomach,  and  sometimes  to 
this  organ.  Enlargements  of  it,  by  retained  contents,  are  apt  to  be 
attributed  to  the  stomach.  Its  contents,  being  retained,  will  be  apt 
also  to  cause  headache,  heaviness,  and  a  bad  complexion.  It  is 
rendered  torpid  by  want  of  exercise,  by  want  of  waste  substance  in 
the  food,  by  habits  of  neglect  in  regard  to  it.  Its  contents  should 
never  be  retained  more  than  24  hours.  Regularity  in  compelling  the 
action  of  this  organ  at  the  same  time  each  day  as  near  as  may  be  is 
of  imperative  necessity.  Health  cannot  continue  -without  it. 


SEC.  T>.—TJie  Lacteals. 

[How  the  Lacteals  commence  in  the  sides  of  the  second  stomach,  or 
how  they  gather  the  chyle  from  it,  is  not  known.  Neither  is  it  known 
what  effect  they  have  upon  the  chyle  as  it  passes  through  them,  or 
their  glands,  as  certain  parts  are  called.] 


SEC.  E.— The  Spleen  (Milt). 

[The  spleen,  doubtless,  has  some  office  in  connection  with  diges- 
tion. It  is  situated  to  the  left  of  the  stomach,  and  in  immediate  proxi- 
mity to  it.  Fig.  4,  PL  4,  and  Fig.  17.  Its  veins  assist  to  form  the  portal 
vein,  and  it  has  been  conjectured  that  its  use  is  to  receive  a  quantity  of 
blood  when  the  liver  is  in  such  a  state  that  blood  cannot  flow  through 
it  readily  ;  thus  acting  as  a  reservoir.  It  is  enlarged  when  a  person 
has  ague  cakes,  and  constitutes  those.  It  is  not  the  cause  of  the 
aches  in  the  side  when  a  person  runs,  &c.] 

mature  frog ;  he  is  a  meat-eater,  and  his  second  stomach  becomes  short.  A  singular 
question  might  be  asked  : — Would  the  second  stomach  of  a  man  grow  shorter  or  longei 
by  confining  himself  to  one  class  of  food  ?  Both  the  first  and  second  stomach  do  grow 
larger  and  smaller  as  the  seasons  vary,  and  as  a  person's  habits  are.  Whether  the 
last  grows  shorter  or  longer,  there  are  no  facts  to  verify. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  223 

How  poisoned  persons  should  be  treated. 

ADDENDA. 

POISONS,   CHOKING,  ftUACK  MEDICINES,  ETC. 

The  effect  of  poisons  is  to  be  prevented  or  counteracted. 

[The  effect  may  be  prevented  by  diluting  some  kinds,  neutralizing  others,  and 
evacuating  others.] 

[1st.  If  any  acid,  or  ley,  or  like  substance  has  been  taken,  large  draughts  of  cold 
water  should  be  immediately  taken,  and  to  the  point  of  vomiting.  Drink  fast  and 
largely.] 

[2d.  If  ley  have  been  taken,  swallow  also  some  oil,  or  vinegar.  If  corrosive  subli- 
mate (of  which  most  kinds  of  bedbug  poison  are  composed)  have  been  taken,  swallow 
as  many  eggs  as  can  be,  directly  from  the  shell,  and  if  vomiting  do  not  at  once  occur, 
drink  immediately  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  use  an  emetic  of  a  table  spoonful  of 
common  ground  mustard,  taken  any  way  which  is  most  convenient.*] 

[If  any  solid  substance,  of  a  poisonous  nature,  have  been  taken,  mix  some  flower 
or  meal  with  the  first  water  that  is  swallowed.  Let  it  be  as  thick  as  may  be  swallowed. 
The  object  is,  to  have  it  "stick"  to  the  poison  and  remove  it  from  the  coats  of  the 
stomach.  At  once  follow  the  paste  with  some  clean  water  and  a  table  spoonful  of 
mustard,  or  proper  quantity  of  other  emetic.  If  none  be  at  hand,  drink  water  till  the 
stomach  is  full,  and  vomiting  occurs.  If  a  person  be  stupid  so  that  he  cannot  swallow, 
then  the  effect  of  the  poison  must  be  counteracted.] 

[The  effect  of  poisons  that  cause  stupor,  may  be  counteracted,  when  stupor  is  pro- 
duced, by  putting  cold  applications  on  the  head  and  warming  all  other  parts  of  the 
body  by  warm  water,  cloths,  by  rubbing,  and  by  exercise,  if  the  person  can  be  made  to 
take  it.  by  being  placed  between  two  persons  and  made  to  walk.  By  means  of  a 
stomach  pump  emetics  should  be  passed  into  the  stomach,  and  if  they  will  not  act, 
pumped  out  again  with  all  the  contents  of  tiie  stomach,  into  which  plenty  of  warm 
water  should  be  thrown  to  rinse  it  out.  As  soon  as  the  cold  applications  to  the  head 
and  warm  ones  to  the  feet,  &c.,  have  relieved  the  brain  from  blood,  so  that  a  person 
recovers  a  little  from  his  stupor,  and  can  drink,  he  should  swallow  an  emetic.  If  the 


action  of  the  poison  has  stuped  the  breath,  artificial  respiration,  see  pp.  2tS,  should  be 
caused,  and  the  body  briskly  rubbed.  If  by  a  spasm  the  top  of  the  windpipe  is  closed, 
a  hole  should  be  made  in  the  windpipe.  The  physician  and  surgeon  should  be  at  once 
sent  for,  that  all  after  effects  may  be  as  far  as  possible  prevented.  The  effect  of  corro- 
sive poison  is  to  be  counteracted  according  to  the  nature.of  the  case,  which  usually  al- 
lows time  for  the  arrival  of  the  doctor.] 

Choking  should  be  managed  according  to  the  cause  of  it,  by  the  skilful  man  of  sci- 
ence, except  it  cause  suffocation  by  causing  the  windpipe  to  be  closed.  An  opening 
should  then  be  made  in  the  pipe  at  once(see  pp.  248),  and  after  the  man  is  thus  allowed 
to  breathe,  there  will  be  time  to  remove  the  cause  of  the  annoyance  at  leisure. 

Quack  Medicines  and  Quackery  should  be  rated  among  the  poisons,  for  they  are 
so  in  a  double  respect.  They  poison  the  body,  and,  still  worse,  they  poison  the  moral- 
ity of  the  community,  by  causing  young  men  to  see  the  apparent  success  of  unpunished 
imposture.  They  are  a  pest  to  the  land,  worse  than  Egypt's  plagues.  If  they  be  good 
in  themselves  in  some  cases,  it  is  by  chance ;  as  a  man  might,  in  the  dark,  reach  his 
hand  into  a  basket  of  open  razors,  and  chance  to  get  one  by  the  handle.  It  is  the  sci- 
entific application  of  a  medicine  which  makes  it  valuable.  Most  persons  think  it  is 
nothing  to  take  a  dose  of  pills  or  castor  oil;  but  these  things  are  as  powerful  for 
harm  as  they  are  for  good,  and  they  produce  their  effect  by  a  powerful  action  on  the 
digestive  canal ;  and  many  a  man  has  produced  the  most  inveterate  and  unpleasant 
diseases  by  taking  what  he  thought  harmless  pills.  The  evacuation  of  the  digestive 
canal  should  be  most  scrupulously  produced  every  twenty-four  hours,  by  habit  and  pay- 

*  This  is  one  of  the  best  things  for  an  emetic,  at  any  time,  but  especially  in  case 
of  poisoning,  being  as  powerful  and  sure  as  any  tiling,  except  sulphate  of  zinc, 
which  cannot  be  easily  obtained  when  wanted. 


224       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


How  to  restore  the  system  from  the  effects  of  medicines 


ing  attention  to  the  calls  of  nature  ;  and  when  it  is  "  out  of  order,"  there  is  a  cause  which 
should  be  learned  and  removed.  It  is  no  use  to  take  pills  and  live  as  before.  No  me- 
dicine should  be  taken  except  it  be  advisedly. 

To  restore  a  system  which  has  been  broken  up  by  a  long  course  of  taking  nostrums 
and  medicines  will  require  a  great  deal  of  patience — a  most" thorough  observance  of  all 
the  laws  of  health,  and  an  abrupt  turning  out  of  doors,  and  out  of  the  mind,  of  all 
quacks  and  quackery,  and  all  belief  in  the  wonderful  efficacy  of  medicines.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  person  must  build  up  in  his  mind  a  pious  reliance  on  the  laws  of  our 
great  and  good  Creator,  with  a  firm  determination  to  observe  and  do  what  he  has 
intended  for  our  good.* 

*  The  whole  community  ought  to  rouse  up  in  indignation  against  the  countless 
impostors  who  laugh  at  the  credulity  and  misguided  confidence  of  men,  and  prey 
upon  the  love  of  life  which  is  natural  to  every  man,  and  to  the  still  stronger  tie  of 
affection,  which  binds  the  parent  to  his  child,  and  makes  him  hope  in  the  groundless 
pretensions  palmed  upon  him.  There  is  nothing  a  man  will  not  do  to  save  his  life 
and  that  of  his  family.  He  is  ready,  when  sick,  to  believe  what,  when  well,  he  would 
laugh  to  scorn.  His  anxiety  should  not  be  allowed  to  be  a  laughing-stock  and  a  means 
by  which  base,  ingrate  inhumans  may  fleece  him.  Community  ought  to  be  pro- 
tected from  these  worse  than  midnight  assassins.  No  matter  whether  a  man  have  a 
diploma  or  not,  if,  to  make  money,  he  sacrifices  or  risks  the  life  of  a  child,  a  mother, 
a  father,  or  any  human  being,  he  is  the  basest  that  man  can  be,  no  matter  how  legally 
he  does  it.  He  not  only  murders,  but  he  does  it  to  one  who  places  tbe  highest  con- 
fidence in  him  that  one  man  can  put  in  another,  viz. — his  life  and  that  of  his  family. 


•I- 


BOOK  II. 

THE    CIRCULATORY    OllGANS, 

Hearts — Arteries —  Capillaries —  Veins. 


CHAPTER   I. 
Hearts. 


312.  There  are  two  hearts,  called  right  and  left.     Each 
heart  is  composed  of  two  parts,  an  auricle  above  and  a  ven- 
tricle below. 

[  Tlie  auricles  are  comparatively  thin,  they  receive  the  blood  which 
flows  to  the  heart,  and  from  them  it  passes  into  the  Ventricles.  These 
are  thick  through  their  sides,  and  very  powerful,  though  the  force 
they  ordinarily  exert  is  not  very  great.  The  tricuspid  valves  (three 
pointed)  are  the  names  $f  tendinous  valves,  between  the  auricle  and 
ventricle  of  the  right  heart.  The  mitral  valves  is  the  name  of  similar 
valves,  two  in  number  between  the  same  parts  of  the  left  heart.] 

313.  The  use  of  the  hearts  is,  by  contracting  and  dilat- 
ing, to  receive  and  throw  out  the  blood,  and-  assist  in  keeping 
it  in  motion. 

[Their  utility  may  be  judged  by  comparing  the  amount  they 
throw  out,  and  the  number  of  their  beats  per  minute.  This  last  varies 
according  to  the  constitution,  the  age,  the  sex,  the  health,  the  exer- 
cise taken,  and  the  wants  of  the  system  in  any  respect,  the  position 
of  the  body,  &c.*J 

[The  average  beat  in  case  of  men  at  maturity,  is  75  per  minute,  in 
women  80,  in  this  country  ;  as  I  have  concluded  from  many  experi- 

*  There  is  so  much  variation  in  case  of  healthy  people  in  the  same  circum- 
stances, that  there  should  be  no  cause  of  alarm  if  the  heart  beat  uniformly  slower 
or  faster,  by  much,  than  the  average. 


226       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

How  the  pulse  signifies  the  health  of  the  system. 

ments.  The  average  in  Europe  is  said  to  be  about  70  in  case  of  men. 
From  one  to  three  ounces  of  blood  are  thrown  out  each  beat  or  pulsa- 
tion. Say  one  ounce  only,  and  that  the  heart  beats  but  sixty-four 
times  per  minute,  and  the  result  will  be  64  ounces  or  4  pounds  per 
minute;  240  Ibs.per  hour;  about  the  same  as  240  pints,  or  about  a 
barrel.  This  labor  is  also  accomplished  by  each  heart.  The  blood 
is  therefore  coursing  along  with  unthought  of  rapidity,  and  it  will  run 
the  whole  circuit  of  the  system  in  an  almost  incredibly  short  space  of 
time.  All  this  blood  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  every  mo- 
ment, that  it  may  be  purified,  and  what  is  still  more  essential,  may 
cause  the  production  of  heat.  When  it  is  sent  out  coursing  through 
every  part  of  the  system,  to  bestow  upon  it  liie-giving  nourishment 
and  heat.  The  importance  of  the  heart's  action  is  very  great,  and 
little  does  the  thoughtless  man  dream,  as  he  lies  down  to  rest  in  se- 
curity, of  the  tremendous  amount  of  blood  which  all  night  long  is 
rushing  through  the  system,  driven  along  by  the  impetuous  contrac- 
tions of  the  heart,  which  all  the  life  long  beats  on  day  and  night, 
summer  and  winter,  without  ceasing  for  an  instant,  but  always  in  pre- 
cise accordance  with  the  wants  of  his  system,  and  without  putting 
him  to  a  moment's  thought  or  trouble,  or  even  producing  the  least 
fatigue.  Truly  the  ways  of  the  Creator  are  past  the  understanding  of 
man,  and  his  wisdom  and  goodness  deserves  our  adoration  and  praise. 
The  heart  must  be  influenced  to  beat  by  means  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, and  the  connection  between  it  and  the  heart  must  be  very  inti- 
mate, and  whatever  affects  it  must  exhibit  itself  by  altering  the  beats 
of  the  heart.] 

Illus.  a. — Hence,  any  disease  of  the  system  will  show  itself  in  the 
action  of  the  heart,  which  may  be  determined  by  feeling  the  pulse. 

Inf.  b. — The  heart  may  beat  very  violently,  or  otherwise  irregu- 
larly, without  any  disease  of  the  heart  existing. 

[Hence,  the  doctor  feels  the  pulse,  not  so  much  to  know  the  num- 
ber of  beats  of  the  heart,  as  the  state  of  the  nervous  system  that 
causes  the  beats  of  the  heart,  and  many  of  the  states  of  health  that 
other  parts  will  exhibit.  Hence,  dyspepsia  will  produce  palpitations 
of  the  heart ;  diseases  of  the  lungs,  the  liver  and  the  brain  will  do  the 
same.  States  of  the  mind  will  act  through  the  nervous  system  on 
the  heart,  &c.] 

313.  The  perfect  action  of  the  heart  must  be  maintained 
by  preserving  a  healthy  state  in  other  parts,  and  a  healthy 
state  of  the  disposition. 

[Of  course,  we  cannot  act  upon  the  heart  directly.  How  can  we  1 
But  disease  is  brought  upon  it  by  over  exercise,  and  tasking  the 
heart  beyond  endurance,  by  depressed  or  exhilarated  states  of  the 
mind  ;  but  above  all  by  drinking  alcoholic  beverages  and  causing  the 
alcohol  to  exert  its  accursed  influences  upon  the  delicate  lining  of  the 
heart,  by  stealthily  making  its  way  mixed  with  the  blood  in  the  guise 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  227 


Structure  and  situation  of  the  arteries. 

of  a  friend,  into  the  very  fountains  of  life,  which  should  only  be  visit- 
ed by  healthy  fluids.] 


CHAPTER    II. 

'Arteries. 

315.  The  arteries  are  the  channels  through  which  the 
heart  pours  out  its  treasures,  to  invigorate  and  warm  every 
part  of  the  body. 

[To  allow  the  blood  to  flow  freely,  it  was  necessary  that  their 
sides  should  be  somewhat  stiff,  and  though  flexible,  not  compressed 
with  ease.  Hence  if  cut  off,  they  remain  open  like  as  a  quill  does. 
On  this  account,  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  not  be  exposed  so 
as  to  be  readily  injured,  as  they  would  be  near  the  surface.  Again, 
as  the  central  parts  of  the  body  are  the  warmer,*  the  blood  flowing 
along  the  arteries,  warms  the  parts  through  which  it  passes.-  and 
becomes  itself  correspondingly  cooler ;  but  as  it  is  desirable  to  have 
considerable  heat  conveyed  to  the  extremities,  too  much  must  not 
be  lost  on  the  way.  Hence  the  arteries  ought  to  be  buried  deeply; 
and  so  they  are.  In  the  midst  of  the  limbs  not  only,  are  they  found, 
but  on  those  sides  of  the  bones  where  they  would  be  kept  most 
warm.] 

Illus. — The  main  arteryi  of  the  arm  passes  down  along  the  inside 
of  the  bone.  viz..  the  side  of  the  bone  towards  the  body,  where  the 
heat  of  the  body  would  assist  in  keeping  the  arm  warm.  See  Fig.  83. 
In  the  fall  of  the  year,  not  only  to  keep  the  blood  warm  in  the 
main  artery,  but  in  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  nature  clothes  the 
system  with  more  fat  than  in  summer,  and  man,  governed  by  his 
instinct  and  judgment,  will  also  assist  in  the  same  laudable  object  by 
clothing  the  skin  externally.] 

Inf. — The  warmth  of  any  part,  all  other  things  being  similar, 
depends  on  the  quantity  of  blood  which  circulates  to  a  part,  the 

*  The  temperature  of  the  body  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  98.  This  should  be 
understood  as  meaning  the  temperature  of  the  mouth.  Dr.  Beaumont  testifies  that 
the  temperature  of  the  stomach  averaged  100.  And  from  about  this  range  in  the 
centre  of  the  body,  the  temperature  falls,  as  we  go  out  to  the  circumference,  it 
being  93  in  the  throat,  96  at  the  top  of  the  brain.  94  in  the  hands,  92  in  the  feet. 
Of  course,  these  are  only  general  statements,  which  would  vary  with  the  individual 
and  with  the  circumstances.  It  is  always,  in  health,  warmer  a  little  below,  than  at  tha 
surface.  .1 


228 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Large  arteries  of  the  arm  and  leg. 


distance  it  is  from  the  heart,  and  the  amount  of  fat  and  external 
clothing  with  which  it.  and  the  parts  between  it  and  the  heart,  are 
covered. 

[The  head,  therefore,  which  receives  a  very  large  amount  of  blood 
and  is  so  near  the  heart,  is  in  no  danger  of  becoming  cool.  It  is  also 
seen  why  the  face  can  be  exposed  to  the  cold  without  injury,  and  why 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  83.— Arm,  with  parts  removed  to 
show  the  situation  of  the  main  artery. 

Fig.  84.— 2,  2.  Divided  ends  of  "tailor's 
muscle."  1,  1,  Femoral  artery. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  229 


How  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  in  case  of  injury. 

the  face  will  in  many  persons  exhibit  such  a  glow  as  it  does.*  The 
feet  and  hands,  which  are  so  far  from  the  heart,  will  receive  less  heat 
than  the  head.  The  old  proverb,  "  Keep  the  head  cool  and  the  ex- 
tremities warm,"  is  therefore  a  good  one,  and  should  always  be  kept 
in  mind.J 

Inf. — And  if  the  head  become  too  warm,  we  should  cool  it.  If  the 
extremities  become  too  cool,  we  should  warm  them. 

[The  first  can  be  done  by  cold  applications.  It  is  one  of  the 
essentials  to  the  health  of  any  part  of  the  body,  that  it  be  maintained 
at  its  natural  temperature,  and  it  is  no  more  improper  to  cool  the 
head  when  hot,  than  to  warm  the  feet  when  cold.  It  is  the  same  with 
all  parts  of  the  body :  if  they  be  hot  they  should  be  cooled,  for  health 
cannot  be  restored  till  the  temperature  is  reduced.  If,  therefore,  the 
body  and  skin  be  hot  and  feverish,  sponge  it  with  cool  applications 
till  the  temperature  is  reduced.  But  the  nervous  system,  in  parti- 
cular, will  be  benefited  by  reducing  its  temperature.  The  extremities, 
on  the  other  hand,  can  be  kept  warm  by  clothing  them  sufficiently, 
taking  exercise,  and  rubbing  them,  which  supplies  them  with  the 
requisite  blood.] 

[On  account  of  the  depth  at  which  the  artery  is  found,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  if  an  artery  be  injured.  The  first 
thing  to  be  done  is,  to  raise  up  the  part  as  high  as  possible.  Next 
place  a  knot  over  the  large  artery  leading  to  the  part,  bring  the  ends 
of  the  handkerchief,  or  other  band,  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  limb  and 
tie  them  together,  but  not  close  to  the  limb.  With  a  stick,  iron,  a 
penknife,  or  with  the  hands,  twist  the  bandage  tight  as  possible,  that 
the  knot  may  press  with  force  upon  the  course  of  the  vessel.  To  do 
this  the  better,  place  a  chip,  stick,  or  smooth  stone  as  large  as  a  dollar, 
an  inch  thick,  or  a  few  pieces  of  money,  under  the  knot.  To  do  all 
this  with  necessary  expedition,  a  person  must  be  able  to  judge  when 
an  artery  is  injured  and  where  the  main  arteries  are  found.  Injury  of 
an  artery  is  known  by  the  bright  red  color  of  the  blood,  which  also 
flows  in  jets  and  very  rapidly.  The  position  of  the  main  artery  of  the 
arm  is  between  the  bone  and  the  inner  edge  of  the  muscle  up*  '>  the 
front  part  of  the  arm.  see  Fig.  83.  The  main  artery  of  ;'.  i  g  is 
situated  between  the  bone  and  the  inner  edge*  of  the  sartorius  or 
tailor's  muscle,  which  crosses,  so  to  speak,  the  leg  as  seen  at  62,  Fig. 
1.  PI.  1.  The  knot  must  be  placed  so  that  the  artery  shall  be  between 
it  and  the  bone.  If  forcible  twisting  do  not  check  the  flow,  the  knot 
must  be  quickly  changed,  first  one  side,  and  then  the  other  of  where  it 
was.  If  no  bandage  can  be  had  or  applied,  force  must  be  applied  with 
the  fingers.  Applying  pressure  and  cold  water  immediately  to  the  part, 
is  also  good  and  frequently  successful  if  continued  long  enough.  A 
person  who  has  received  wounds  of  the  small  arteries,  should  never 
be  left  without  the  arteries  being  tied  securely.  Sometimes  children 
have  bled  to  death,  during  the  night,  by  the  flow  of  blood  from  leech 
bites.] 

*  It  was  surely  an  Indian  who  said,  he  was  "all  face." 


230       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Many  very  important  inferences. 

CHAPTER    HI. 
Capillaries. 

316  The  capillaries  constitute  a  network  of  vessels 
which  receive  the  blood  from  the  artery,  and  cause  it  to 
nourish  the  system. 

[Some  suppose  that  these  exert  a  contractile  power  upon  the  blood, 
and  thus  assist  in  its  circulation.  It  is  uncertain.  One  ir,  iportant  fact 
is  certain,  viz.,  they  are  enlarged  and  diminished  by  the  action  of 
nervous  influences.] 

lllus.—lf  a  person  go  out  in  the  cold,  it  acts  through  the  nerves 
upon  the  nervous  centre,  and  it  immediately  causes  an  influence  to  be 
exerted  upon  and  to  enlarge  the  capillaries  of  the  cheek. 

Inf.  a.— If  the  health  be  good,  and  the  nervous  system  consequent- 
ly efficient,  the  power  exerted  upon  the  capillaries  will  correspond, 
and  the  increased  quantity  of  blood  thus  supplied  will  keep  the 
cheek  warm  despite  the  cold;  but  if  the  health  be  feeble,  the 
nervous  system  will  exert  but  a  feeble  influence,  and  the  circulation 
will  not  keep  the  cheek  warm. 

Inf.  b. — The  state  of  the  constitution  and  the  health  of  a  person 
will  entirely  govern  the  effect  produced  on  any  part  of  the  system. 

Inf.  c. — One  person  can  bear  exposure  better  than  another. 

Inf.  d.—lf  a  person  be  not  well,  he  should  be  careful  not  to  expose 
himself. 

Inf.  e— There  is  no  rule  by  which  to  govern  all  persons,  or  even 
one  person,  at  different  times,  in  respect  to  bathing.  At  one  time, 
or  for  one  person,  a  cold  bath  will  be  best.  At  another  time,  or  for 
another  person,  warm  baths  will  be  best. 

Inf.  /.—A  person  will  take  cold  much  more  quickly  at  one  time 
than  at  another. 

[It  will  be  found  by  experiment,  that  after  sufficient  time,  the  cold 
will  get  the  mastery  over  the  heartiest  person,  for  his  nervous  system 
is  becoming  exhausted  by  action,  and  of  course  less  and  less  power- 
ful, while  the  action  of  the  cold  is  not  suffering  any  diminution.  In 
case  of  some  persons  the  nervous  power  will  last  not  more  than  five 
minutes,  or  perhaps  never  exhibit  any  appreciable  effect ;  in  another 
person  it  will  last  for  five  hours.] 

Inf. — One  person  is  no  criterion  for  another ;  nor  is  one  state  of 
the  health  or  vigor,  any  criterion  for  another  state. 

[In  infancy  the  powers  of  the  system  are  feeble,  and  it  cannot 
Dear  cold  as  the  youth  can.] 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  231 

Situation  of  the  veins,  and  reasons  for  it. 

Inf.—  Infants  should  be  dressed  warmer  than  grown  persons, 
especially  their  arms,  and  legs,  and  feet. 

[Instead  of  this,  they  are  usually  clad  more  thinly,  especially  on 
the  arms.  A  child  should  never  be  dressed  with  short  sleeves.] 

[The  vigor  of  women  is  not  as  great  as  that  of  men,  and  cold  is 
not  so  well  borne  by  women.] 

Inf.— Women  ought  to  dress,  especiai/y  the  extremities,  more 
warmly  than  men. 

[Instead  of  that,  they  clothe  most  thinly  those  parts  which  should 
be  clad  most  warmly,  and  all  parts  of  the  system  less  warmly  than 
men,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  complain  of  cold  hands  and  feet.]* 


CHAPTER   IV. 

The   Veins. 

317.  The  veins  are  the  rivers  of  the  system,  which  gather 
from  the  capillaries  of  all  parts  of  it.  the  redundant  blood 
and  all  portions  of  the  body  passed  into  it,  and  with  the 
exception  of  the  portal  vein,  cause  them  to  flow  directly  into 
the  opening  or  dilating  heart. 

[They  are  very  numerous — about  three  to  one  of  the  arteries,  and 
many  of  the  large  ones  lie  directly  beneath  the  skin.  The  object  of 
this  doubtless  was,  because  it  would  be  improper  to  have  the  blood 
which  had  warmed  the  extremities  and  become  cool,  flow  back  by  the 
side  of  the  blood  going  out.  As  by  the  existing  arrangement  the 
veins  would  be  exposed  to  injury  and  to  pressure,  it  was  necessary 
they  should  be  numerous  and  very  flexible.  This  also  rendered  it 
necessary  that  the  veins  should  be  supplied  with  valves.  In  the  head, 
which  is  naturally  in  an  upright  position,  there  are  no  valves.  Hence 
when  a  person  stoops  he  feels  the  blood  pressing  to  his  head.] 

Inf.  a — Boys  should  not  stand  upon  the  head,  turn  summersets, 
&c. 

Inf.  b. — A  person  should  not  sleep  with  the  head  low.  Infants 
should  be  placed  in  a  proper  position,  with  the  head  and  feet  higher 
than  the  chest.  They  should  never,  when  dressed  or  washed,  be 
placed  in  such  a  position  that  the  head  hangs  below  the  chest. 

*  The  coldness  of  those  parts  is  partly  owing  to  want  of  exercise,  which  would 
distribute  the  blood,  and  partly  to  the  dress  compressing  the  chest,  and  preventing  the 
reception  of  air,  and,  of  course,  the  production  of  heat. 


232       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Effects  of  applying  cold  and  heat  to  the  skin. 

CHAPTEE   V. 
Lymphatics. 

[  The  lymphatics  are  a  set  of  tubes  appearing  somewhat  like  a 
string  of  beads.  They  commence  in  most  parts  of  the  body,  and  after 
extending  for  a  greater  or  less  distance,  open  into  the  veins.  They 
contain  a  watery  looking'  fluid,  called  lymph.  Their  use  is  not  known. 
It  is  conjectured  by  some  that  it  is  their  duty  to  gather  from  every 
part  of  the  body  the  useful  substances  which  exist  in  a  part,  and  are 
not  wanted  there.] 

ADDENDA. 

It  will  always  be  useful  to  remember  the  influence  of  cold  in  checking  the  circu- 
lation of  blood  in  a  part,  if  continuously  applied  ;  and  that  if  transiently  applied,  it  in- 
creases the  circulation.  Thus,  by  continued  iced  applications  to  the  head,  when  the 
brain  is  inflamed,  a  good  effect  is  wrought.  So  by  cold  applications  to  the  throat, 
when  croup  occurs,  the  evil  can  be  checked.  By  often  gargling  a  sore  throat  with  cold 
water,  relief  will  be  given.  When  the  eyes  are  inflamed,  cold  water  applied  a  dozen 
times  per  day,  is  useful.  If  an  ankle  or  any  part  be  sprained  and  be  hot.  cold  applica- 
tions will  be  serviceable  till  the  temperature  is  reduced.  If  a  person  have  taken  a 
cold  and  be  feverish,  let  him  sponge  the  ski»  till  he  feel  a  slight  chill,  which,  in  all 
cases,  is  a  sure  sign  by  which  to  know  if  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  reduced.  In 
rheumatic  inflammation,  cold  applications  are  often  highly  serviceable.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  it  is  desirable  to  send  blood  from  a  part,  it  is  well  not  only  to  try  to  do  so, 
by  applying  cold  to  it,  but  also  by  acting  on  other  parts,  so  as  to  solicit  blood  to  them. 
Thus,  putting  the  fee,t  in  warm  water  while  cold  is  applied  to  the  head,  every  body 
knows  is  good  for  the  headache.  In  case  of  rheumatic  attacks,  not  only  should  cold 
be  applied  to  the  affected  part,  but  heat  to  all  other  parts.  Heat  applied  to  the  feet,  in 
case  of  croup  and  inflammations  of  the  chest,  every  body  knows  is  admirable— not 
less  advantageous  is  it  to  apply  heat  to  the  hands  as  well.  Physicians  also  excite  a 
flow  of  blood  to  a  part  by  a  blister,  a  mustard  poultice,  by  cupping,  leeching,  &c.,  and 
thus  tend  to  relieve  other  organs  of  too  much  blood.  And,  as  when  the  lungs  are  over- 
charged with  blood,  the  kidneys  try  to  relieve  them,  by  removing  a  portion  of  the 
water  of  the  blood,  so  does  the  physician  sometimes  give  relief  by  letting  blood,  and 
thus  lessening  the  quantity  of  it  in  the  entire  body. 


BOOK  III.     , 

Respiratory  Organs. 

318.  The  respiratory  organs  comprehend,  the  Lungs  and 
their  appendages — the  Framework  of  the  Chest — the  Mus- 
cles of  Inspiration — the  Muscles  of  Expiration,  and  Nerves. 

319.  The  use  of  the  respiratory  organs,  is  to  cause  the 
blood  and  air  to  act  upon  each  other. 


CHAPTEE    I. 
The  Lungs. 

320.  The  lungs  are  for  the  reception  of  air  on  the  one 
hand,  and  blood  on  the  other,  and  assist  in  the  expulsion  of 
the  air. 

321.  TJie  lungs  are  composed  of  seven  different  kinds  of 
parts.      1st.   The  windpipe.     2d.   The  mucous  membrane,  a 
lining  of  the  windpipe,  and  which  also  forms  the  sides  of  the 
air  cells.     3d.   The  pulmonary  arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins. 
4th.    Parenchymatous  substance.      5th.    The  pleura.     6th. 
Systemic   bloodvessels,  by  which  the   lungs  are  nourished. 
7th.  Nerves. 

SEC.  A. —  Windpipe. 

322.  The  windpipe  is  a  tube^of  which  there  are  many  divi- 


234 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY, 


The  windwipe  and  its  use. 


sions  in  each  side  of  the  chest.  The  use  of  it  is  to  allow  the 
air  to  be  easily  passed  backward  and  forward,  to  and  from 
the  depths  of  the  lungs. 

Fig.  85. 


[The  windpipe  commences  just  below  the  base  of  the  tongue,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  78.  There  is  at  this  point  a  comparatively  large  frame- 
work called  Larynx,  to  be  hereafter  spoken  of.  Below  this  is  the 
windpipe  proper.  It  is  composed  of  four-fifths  of  rings,  or  hoops  of 
cartilage,  the  ends  of  the  hoops  being  connected  by  yellow  ligament, 
with  which  also  the  cartilages  are  connected  with  each  other,  and 


HYGIENE    AND   THERAPEUTICS.  235 


The  delicate  air  cells  and  capillaries. 

formed  into  a  tube.  This  pipe,  called  trachea,  extends  down  as  far  as 
within  the  upper  part  of  the  breast-bone.  It  there  divides  into  two 
branches,  which  lead  at  very  obtuse  angles  into  the  sides  of  the  chest, 
where  they  divide  and  subdivide,  and  are  called  bronchii.  They  have 
the  same  general  structure  as  the  trachea,  the  whole  being  one  thing, 
and  may  be  compared  to  the  bark  of  a  tree,  if  the  wood  be  supposed 
drawn  out  from  all  the  limbs  and  twigs,  and  the  leaves  plucked  off.] 


SEC.  B. — Mucous  Membrane. 

323.  The  mucous  membrane  commences  at  the  nose,  con- 
tinues through  the  throat,  through  the  larynx,  trachea,  and 
.  bronchii,  at  the  extremities  of  which  it  forms  the  air  cells. 

[The  lining  of  the  nose  is  considered  similar  to  that  of  the  lungs, 
because  by  the  action  of  the  same  causes,  it  is  liable  to  similar  dis- 
eases, either  because  the  structure  of  the  two  are  similar,  or  because 
the  nervous  influences  acting  upon  them  are  similar,  or  both.  The 
lining  of  the  throat  is  considered  to  be  common,  both  to  the  lining  of 
the  stomach  and  of  the  lungs,  being  liable  to  diseases  which  affect 
either.] 

Inf. — Hence,  the  commonness  of  sore  throats. 

[The  lining  becomes  more  and  more  delicate  as  it  is  found  in  the 
finer  divisions  of  the  bronchii,  and  when  at  last  it  forms  the  clusters 
of  cells  about  the  extremities  of  the  bronchii,  it  is  hardly  less  delicate 
than  the  sides  of  a  soap  bubble.  The  cells  are  also  exceedingly  small, 
not  as  large  as  mustard  seeds,  but  so  numerous,  that  one  author  has 
computed  there  are  180  millions  in  one  pair  of  lungs.  These  are  for 
the  reception  of  air,  and  present  a  surface  for  its  action,  greater  than 
the  entire  surface  of  the  body.] 


SEC.  C. — Bloodvessels. 

324.  The  pulmonary  bloodvessels  are  of  three  kinds,  the 
arteries  leading  blood  to  the  air  cells  ;  the  capillaries,  and 
the  veins  leading  it  away  from  the  air  cells.  Their  use  is  to 
carry  the  blood  to  the  air,  and  to  bring  it  back  again 

[The  artery  which  enters  the  lung  arises  from  the  right  heart, 
enters  by  the  side  of  the  windpipe,  and  as  often  as  one  divides  the 
other  does ;  and  thus  a  branch  reaches  every  air  cell,  and  opens  into 
a  beautiful  network  of  capillaries,  of  which  Fig.  3,  PI.  3,  is  a  very 


"236  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Admirable  elasticity  of  the  parenchyma  of  the  lungs. 

highly  magnified  representation.  From  these  again,  veins,  at  least 
two,  and  sometimes  three,  lead  back  by  the  sides  of  the  windpipe  to 
the  left  heart.  Thus  if  a  division  of  the  windpipe  be  any  where  ex- 
amined, three  bloodvessels  will  be  found  by  the  side  of"  it,  viz.,  an 
artery  and  two  veins.  In  this  admirable  manner  is  the  blood  very 
rapidly  and  thoroughly  spread  out  to  the  action  of  the  air.*] 


SEC.  D. — The  Parenchyma. 

325.  The  parenchymatous  substance  is  the  name  given 
to   the  substance  which  fills  the  spaces  which  would  other- 
wise exist,  between  the  divisions  of  the  bloodvessels,  wind- 
pipe, air  cells,  &c.     It  is  of  great  use  by  its  elasticity  in  ex- 
pelling the  air  from  the  lungs. 

Illus. — If  a  person  take  a  pair  of  lights  from  an  animal,  and  .orce 
air  down  the  windpipe,  and  fill  all  the  cells,  he  will  enlarge  the 
lung,  but  the  instant  the  force  is  taken  away,  the  air  is  thrown  out 
with  considerable  force. 

[It  is  necessary  to  overcome  the  elasticity  of  the  substance  of  the 
lung  when  the  air  is  forced  in  ;  the  substance  is.  so  to  speak,  stretched 
in  all  directions,  and  springs  back  as  soon  as  permitted.] 

Illus.  If  the  same  lights  are  pressed  in  the  hand,  they  feel  spongy, 
and  are  easily  compressed  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  force  is  removed,  they 
spring  back. 

[This  shows  that  the  parenchyma  is  elastic  in  two  respects.  The 
first  Illus.  shows  that  its  elasticity  is  sufficient  to  drive  the  air  out  if  there 
be  not/tins  to  hinder.]-^ 

[An  important  question  is,  Is  the  elasticity  of  the  parenchyma  in- 
creased and  diminished  by  nervous  influences  1] 

SEC.  E.— The  Pleura. 

326.  Pleura  is  the  name  given  to  the  skin,  or  membrane 

*  Nor  must  it  be  supposed  there  will  be  any  difficulty  because  the  blood  is  con- 
stantly enclosed  in  bloodvessels;  for  if  a  bladder  filled  with  blood  should  be  placed 
in  milk,  the  blood  would  pass  through  and  change  the  color  of  the  milk,  and  the  milk 
would  pass  into  the  bladder.  Much  more  easily  can  the  blood  and  air  act  upon 
each  other. 

t  The  elasticity  of  a  calf's  lights  is  such,  that  a  man  can  rarely  overcome  it  with 
the  force  of  his  own  breathing  apparatus ;  that  is,  he  cannot  fill  them  by  blowing 
into  the  windpipe.  It  is  not  probable  that  all  the  effect  is  owing  solely  to  the  paren- 
chyma ;  it  is  in  part  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  elasticity  of  the  divisions  of  the  windpipe 
and  sides  of  the  cells,  yet  mostly  to  the  parenchyma. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  237 

Bloodvessels  of  the  lungs. — Framework  of  the  chest. 

which  covers  in  all  those  parts  hitherto  described,  except  a 
small  portion  called  the  roots.  Its  use  is  to  cover  the  parts 
constituting  the  lungs,  and  to  form  and  pour  out  upon  its 
surface  a  glairy  fluid,  which  shall  prevent  all  danger  of  fric- 
tion, and  also  to  take  it  back  again,  as  need  *nay  be. 

SEC.  F. — Systemic  Bloodvessels  of  the  Lungs. 


[Besides  the  bloodvessels  through  which  blood  passes  to  the  air- 
cells,  the  lungs,  like  all  other  parts,  require  bloodvessels  through 
which  blood  shall  be  supplied  for  their  nourishment.  Therefore] 

327.  The  systemic  arteries  of  the  lungs  are  those  which 
arise  from  the  left  heart,  and  receive  blood  in  common  with 
those  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

[They  follow  no  particular  course  in  the  lung  after  they  have  en- 
tered it  near  its  root.  They  visit  all  parts  of  the  lung,  and  furnish  to 
every  part  its  nourishment.] 

328.  The   systemic   veins    commence    every   where    in 
the  lung,  and  bring  its  waste   substance  to  the  grand  reser- 
voir, the  right  heart,  from  which  it  will  go  directly  back  to 
the  lungs  through  another  set  of  vessels. 


CHAPTER    II. 

^  * 

Framework  of  Chest. 

329.  This  is  composed  of  the  backbone  behind,  the 
ribs  upon  the  sides,  the  breast-bone  in  front,  and  pleura 
throughout. 

[  The  backbone  of  the  cJiest  is  composed  of  12  vertebrae,  between 
each  twq  of  which  are  cartilages,  which  allow  a  certain  extent  of 
motion  of  the  back  at  this  part.] 

[  The  ribs  are  connected  to  the  backbone  by  such  joints  as  allow 
them  a  certain  extent  of  motion  up  and  down.  They  curve  around 


238 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 


Injurious  effect  of  tight  clothing. 


Fig.  86. 


toward  the  front  part  of  the  body,  and  also  incline  downward  more  or 
less,  see  Fig.  4.  The  bony  part  of  the  ribs  (with  the  exception 
of  the  lower  two),  is  lengthened  out  by  a  firm  piece  of  cartilage, 
which  connects  with  the  breast-bone.  The  use  of  this  is  twofold, 
depending  in  both  cases  upon  the  elasticity,  viz.,  after  the  ribs  have 
been  raised  its  elasticity  of  the  cartilage  assists  in  bringing  them 
down.  When  they  have  been  drawn  down,  the  elasticity  of  the  carti- 
lage assists  in  raising  them  up  again.  Thus  there  is  a  certain  position 
in  which  the  action  of  the  cartilages  tends  to  keep  the  chest.  As  the 
ribs  pass  down  as  well  as  around  from  the  back  towards  the  front  of 
the  body,  when  they  are  laised  up,  they  must  make  the  chest  larger 
round.] 

Illus. — If  a  person  place  his  hand  upon  his  sides  and  draw  a  full 
breath,  he  will  perceive  that  his  ribs  are  raised  and  his  chest  enlarged 
at  the  same  time. 

Inf. — If  any  band  or  clothing  be  put  tightly  about  the  chest,  the 
ribs  cannot  be  raised. 

[  The  pleura  is  of  the  same  nature  as  that  covering  the  lungs,  indeed 
is  a  continuation  of  the  same  thing,  as  shown  by  Fig.  86.  It  passes 

across  from  one  portion  of  the  rib  to 
another  at  the  top  of  the  chest,  closing 
across  the  opening  which  would  other- 
wise exist.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
chest,  it  likewise  closes  across  the 
whole  base  of  it.  in  a  somewhat  pe- 
culiar manner,  arching  up  into  the 
chest,  as  seen  by  Fig.  86.  From  the 
form  of  the  bottom  of  the  chest,  the 
attachment  of  the  pleura  is  much 
lower  down  behind  than  it  is  in  front, 
its  attachment,  of  course,  following 
the  lower  edge  of  the  chest.  From 
the  breast-bone  the  pleura  of  each 
side  leaves  the  cfutside  of  the  chest 
and  passes  back  on  one  side  of  the 
heart,  and  the  other  on  the  other,  to 
the  backbone,  or  to  the  roots  of  the 
lungs,  where  it  becomes  continuous 
with  the  covering  of  the  lungs.  There 
are  thus  two  pleura,  one  in  each 
side,  and  they  form  the  chest  into 

two  tight  boxes,  except  at  the  roots  of  the  lungs,  where  an  opening 
is  left  for  the  windpipe  and  bloodvessels,  which  just  fill  it.  As  the 
body  is  usually  placed,  the  hole  is  at  the  side  of  these  boxes,  about 
one-third  the  way ;  but  it  makes  no  difference,  as  there  is  no  other 
hole,  air  cannot  get  in  any  where  else,  and  as  the  hole  is  filled  with 
the  roots  of  the  lungs,  the  air  can  only  get  in  through  the  windpipe. 
Same  as  if  a  bottle  had  a  cork  tight  in  its  nose,  and  a  quill  passed 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


239 


How  air  might  gently  pass  in  and  out  of  the  lungs. 


Fig.  88. 


Fig.  87.  through    the    cork,    nothing    could 

pass  into  the  bottle  except  through 
the  quill,  and  if  a  bag  or  bladder 
were  fastened  round  the  quill  inside 
the  bottle,  whatever  went  through 
the  quill  must  go  into  the  bag.  or  if 
the  quill  had  ten  thousand  divisions, 
and  little  bags  or  cells  at  the  ends  of 
these  divisions,  all  the  air  that  pass- 
ed through  the  quill  must  go  into 
these  bags.  Tims  all  the  air  that 
goes  into  the  sides  of  the  chest  must 
go  through  the  windpipe  and  its 
divisions,  into  the  cells,  and  when  the 
mouth,  or  nose,  and  top  of  the  wind- 
pipe is  open,  there  is  just  as  free  an 
opportunity  for  it  to  do  so  as  there 
is  for  it  to  pass  in  and  out  of  the 
mouth  or  nose.  What  is  to  hinder 
if?*] 

[If,  therefore,  a  person  should 
keep  the  windpipe  and  -mouth  or 
nose  open,  the  difference  in  the 
temperature  between  the  air  in  the 
lungs  and  the  external  air,  would 
cause  a  constant  change  of  the  air 
in  the  lungs.  But  this  would  not 
be  sufficiently  rapid  for  our  needs, 
and  as  the  furnace  man  connects  an  apparatus  with  his  fire,  to  supply, 
it  with  more  air  than  would  be  supplied  by  the  mere  draught  of  the 
air  itself,  so  must  there  be  something  connected  with  the  furnaces  of 
the  body  to  gain  the  same  end.  If  now,  the  mouth  be  opened  or 
enlarged,  air  instantly  passes  in,  or  is  crowded  in,  by  its  own  weight 
and  that  of  the  air  around.  When  the  mouth  is  closed,  the  air  is 
thrown  out.  Thus  by  opening  and  closing,  or  enlarging  and  dimin- 
ishing the  mouth  in  quick  succession,  there  would  be  a  very  rapid 
change  of  the  air  in  the  mouth,  and  a  great  deal  of  air  would  pass 
through, into,  and  out  of  it  in  a  short  time.  The  same  will  be  true 
of  the  box  containing  the  lungs.  If  it  be  enlarged  and  diminished,  a 
great  deal  of  air  will  be  caused  to  pass  into  and  out  of  the  windpipe 
and  air  cells,  as  this  is  the  only  entrance  to.  and  exit  from,  the  box. 
How  is  the  box  enlarged  and  diminished,  is  the  question  1 


*  The  pleura  lining  the  chest  is  called  pleura  costalis  (rib).     That  covering  the 
lungs,  pleura  pulmonalis  (lung). 


240 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   PATHOLOGY. 


Diaphragm. 


CHAPTER   m. 

Muscles  of  Inspiration. 

330.  The  muscles  of  inspiration  include,  the  inter-costal 
(between  ribs),  those  of  the  back,  neck,  and  shoulders,  and 
the  diaphragm. 

[The  Inter-costal  muscles  pass  across  from  the  lower  edge  of  one 
rib  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  rib  below.  There  are  two  layers,  the 
inner  and  outer,  which  pass  in  differently  oblique  directions,  as  in 
Fig.  89.  By  contracting  they  raise  or  depress  the  ribs,  according  to 

Fig.  89. 


Fig.  89. -R  R,  Ribs.  M, 
Transverse  muscles.  L,  The 
direction  they  might  have,  but 
with  decided  loss  of  motion  to 
the  ribs. 


whether  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  chest  is  the  permanent  point. 
Mostly,  however,  they  raise  the  ribs.] 

[Some  of  the  miisdes  of  the  back  assist  in  raising  the  ribs,  some  in 
depressing*  them ;  mostly  they  are  engaged  in  raising  them.  The 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  also  are  engaged  in  raising  them.] 

[The  diaphragm  is  the  great  muscle  of  inspiration.  It  is  attached 
closely  by  one  side  to  the"  pleura,  at  the  bottom  of  the  chest,  and 
carries  the  pleura  with  itself,  whatever  its  movements  are.  It  is 
arched  up  into  the  chest,  of  course,  as  the  pleura  is.  Its  central  part, 
directly  under  the  heart,  is  tendinous.  From  this  its  fleshy  fibres 
radiate,  and  follow  along  the  under  side  of  the  arched  pleura  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  chest,  where  they  terminate  in  tendons,  which  are 
attached  to  the  ribs  and  cartilages  in  front  and  upon  the  sides.  Be- 
hind it  is  gathered  into  two  flat  bundles,  which  somewhat  cross  each 
other,  are  distinguished  as  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  and  are 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the  body  of  the  backbone.*  It  will  be  seen 
by  Fig.  4.  PI.  1.  that  the  fleshy  fibres  of  the  diaphragm  pass  almost 
straight  down  by  the  insides  of  the  ribes.  and  that  they  do  not  spring 
directly  across  from  the  edge  of  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  as 
shown  by  Figs.  90  and  91.  But  when  the  diaphragm  contracts,  it 

*  Tho  object  of  this  arrangement  is  to  form  openings  for  the  large  bloodvessels. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 


241 


Fig.  90. 


Fig.  90. — The  backbone  is  easily 
recognized.  The  pillars  of  the 
diaphragm  are  connected  with  it 
at  1,  which  is  not  a  movable 

Eoint,  as  is  I  at  the  opposite  and 
ront   side  of  the  chest,  which, 
when  it  is  raised  up,  carries  the 

rint  1,  outward  and  upward  to 
The  continuous  line  I  1,  is  the 
diaphragm  when  the  breath  ia 
thrown  out ;  and  close  underneath 
it,  the  liver  and  stomach  are  situ- 
ated, as  in  Fig.  82.  The  dotted 
line  1  2  is  the  position  of  the  dia- 
phragm when  contracted  at  the 
same  time  the  chest  is  raised,  and 
of  course  the  organs  of  the  abdo- 
men are  pressed  down  and  out- 
ward by  all  the  space  between  the 
line  1 1,  and  the  dotted  line  1 2.  The 
dotted  line  beneath  2  is  the  wall 
of  the  abdomen,  when  the  dia- 
phragm is  contracted.  The  line 
beneath  1  is  the  wall  of  the  abdo- 
men, when  contracted. 


Fig.  91 . — Back  view  of  a  perpendicular 
section  of  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  and 
upper  part  of  the  abdomen,  through  the 
centre  of  the  body.  The  continuous  lines 
show  the  outline  of  the  body  and  diaphragm 
when  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  are  con- 
tracted, and  the  diaphragm  and  the  levator 
muscles  of  the  chest  relaxed.  The  stomach, 
liver,  &c.,are  closely  drawn  up  underneath 
the  diaphragm,  as  in  Fig.  82.  The  dotted 
lines  exhibit'  the  outline  of  the  body  and 
diaphragm  when  the  chest  is  raised  up,  and 
of  course  the  points  1  1  carried  outward  to 
2  2,  and  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  are 
pressed  downward  and  outward,  distending 
the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  as  seen  below  2 
2,  or  felt  by  the  hands  placed  on  the  sides  of 
the  abdomen  when  the  breath  is  drawn  in. 
At  3,  it  is  observed  that  the  dotted  lines  are 
but  a  little  below  the  position  of  the  con- 
tinuous lines.  That  point  of  the  diaphragm 
is  nearly  stationary,  above  it  the  hearf  is 
found;  and  the  partitions  upon  either  side 
of  the  heart,  dividing  the  chest  into  three 
apartments,  are  attached  to  the  diaphragm, 
and  with  other  causes  prevent  extensive 
movement  of  that  point,  which  is  not  only 

unnecessary,  but  would  be  injurious.  Upon  either  side  of  3.  the  arches  of  the  dia- 
phragm are  seen;  upon  the  right,  the  arch  is  naturally  the  greater,  owing  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  liver  beneath  it ;  which  causes  also  the  arch  3  2  to  be  more  distinct  than 
represented  by  the  dotted  lines. 


Fig.  91. 


242       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 


Compression  of  the  abdomen  injurious. 


begins  to  spring  more  directly  across,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines, 
and  as  the  ribs  are  raised  up  at  the  same  time,  the  result  is  as  shown 
by  the  figure.  Thus  raising  up  the  chest,  and  contracting  the  dia- 
phragm, must  enlarge  the  box  in  which  the  lungs  are,  and  must  cause 
air  to  pass  into  them.] 

[But  as  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  are  in  close  contact  with  the 
under  surface  of  the  diaphragm,  when  it  is  contracted  as  in  Fig.  91,  it 
must  crowd  them  down  and  forward,  and,  as  shown  by  Fig.  91.  crowd 
them  toward  the  centre  of  the  abdomen,  which  must  yield  to  receive 
them,  as  shown  by  the  figure,  and  as  can  be  seen  to  be  the  case  by 
placing  the  hand  on  the  abdomen.] 

Inf.  a. — If  any  thing  be  put  tightly  about  the  chest,  the  muscles  cannot 
raise  it,  AND  IF  ANY  THING  BE  PUT  TIGHTLY  ABOUT  THE  ABDOMEN  IT 

CANNOT    DISTEND,    AND   THE    DIAPHRAGM   CANNOT   CONTRACT. 

Inf.  b.— All  tight  dresses  must  prevent  the  reception  of  air.  Wear- 
ing pants  without  suspenders  will  have  the  same  effect.  Having  the 
waistbands  tight  the  same.  Wearing  skirts  tied  about  and  suspended 
upon  the  abdomen  must  be  injurious.  Any  girths,  bands,  and  those 
vicious  things  called  supporters,  are  very  injurious.* 


CHAPTER   in. 

Muscles  of  Expiration. 

331.  These  include  the  straight  (recti)  muscles,  the  ob- 
lique and  transverse,  and  some  upon  the  back. 

[The  straight  muscles  pass  across  from  the  breast-bone  and  car- 
tilages of  the  chest  above,  to  the  front  part  of  the  hip  bones  below, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  1,  PI.  1.] 

[The  oblique  and  transverse  are  three  in  number,  in  three  layers 
or  strata,  upon  each  side,  and  close  in  the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  as 
seen  by  PI.  1,  and  PI.  2.  Their  tendons  pass  over  and  under  the 
straight  muscle,  and  by  compressing  that  muscle  assist  its  action. 
When  now  the  muscles  of  inspiration  have  raised  the  sides  of  the 
chest,  and  brought  down,  to  a  degree,  the  bottom,  and  thus  enlarged 
it  and  caused  the  lungs  to  be  filled  by  the  air,  the  organs  of  the  ab- 
domen having  been  pressed  down,  have  thrown  out  the  relaxed  mus- 

*  People  sometimes  say,  they  can  lift  greater  weights  with  something  tied 
round  the  abdomen ;  but  tHey  can  lift  as  much  as  nature  intended  without ;  and  a 
man  is  apt  to  injure  himself  very  badly  by  endeavoring  to  lift  more,  especially  if  a 
band  be  about  the  abdomen.  It  is  very  likely  to  cause  hernia,  rupture,  breach,  and 
ought  not  to  be  done  once. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  243 

The  nerves  of  respiration,  &c. 

cles  of  the  sides,  and  front  of  the  abdomen  in  all  directions  ; 
raising  the  chest,  has  also  made  them  still  longer,  and  they  are  in  the 
best  possible  state  to  contract.  At  the  instant  they  do  this,  however, 
the  muscles  of  inspiration  must  relax,  else  they  will  oppose.  When, 
therefore,  the  muscles  contract,  they  draw  down  the  chest,  and  at  the 
same  time,  push  inward  and  upward  all  the  organs  of  the  abdomen, 
and  the  bottom  of  the  chest  is  carried  up,  and  the  pleural  box  is 
diminished,  and  air  expelled. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
The  Nerves  of  Respiration. 

[Here,  then,  we  have  the  entire  machinery;  but  where  is  the 
power  to  operate  it  ?  This  is  derived  through  nerves.  These  must  be 
of  a  voluntary,  and  also  of  an  involuntary  character — as  sometimes 
we  wish  to  use  them  as  we  choose,  and  they  must  also  continue  their 
action  during  the  night.] 

Process  of  Breathing. 

[Suppose  the  lungs  to  be  in  their  ordinary  state  when  we  are  about 
to  receive  air,  as  in  Fig.  1.  PI.  3,  they  completely  fill  the  chest.  A  tube 
leads  into  them,  through  which  the  air  can  freely  pass  in  and  out. 
The  muscles  of  inspiration  by  contracting  enlarge  the  chest.  To  do 
this,  they  must  overcome  the  elasticity  of  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs, 
move  down  the  organs  of  the  abdomen,  and  take  the  outward  pressure 
of  the  air  from  the  lungs.  The  inward  pressure  of  the  air  then  distends 
the  lungs  in  every  direction,  and  they  now  fill  the  chest.  The  inward 
pressure  of  the  air,  however,  must  overcome  the  elasticity  of  the  paren- 
chyma of  the  lung,  which  is  constantly  resisting  the  distension  of  the 
lung,  and  constantly  on  the  alert  to  expel  the  air,  as  we  can  see  by  an 
experiment  of  inflating  a  pair  of  lights.  As  soon  as  the  force  which 
fills  them  is  removed,  they  spring  back,  or  shrink  up  in  an  instant, 
and  the  air  is  thrown  out  with  a  gush.  This  resistance  of  the  paren- 
chyma prevents  the  outside  of  the  lung  being  brought  forcibly  in 
contact  with  the  inside  of  the  chest.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  there  is 
an  infinitely  small  space  all  round  the  lung,  and  that  it  and  the  chest 
do  nut  quite  touch.  The  external  pressure  of  the  air  is  prevented 
only  so  long  as  the  inspiratory  muscles  continue  to  contract.  As  soon 
as  they  relax,  the  elasticity  of  the  rib  cartilages  begins  to  move  the 
ribs  down,  and  lessens  the  size  of  the  chest.  The  expiratory  muscles 
begin  to  contract  and  draw  down  the  ribs,  and  press  in  and  upward 
the  organs  of  the  abdomen.  This  allows  the  external  pressure  to  act ; 


244       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY, 


Process  of  breathing. 


at  the  same  time,  the  elasticity  of  the  parenchyma  shrinks  the  lung1, 
and  its  contents  are  expelled.  The  muscles  must  act  very  quickly, 
and  powerfully,  to  have  the  sides  or  the  bottom  of  the  chest  overtake 
the  surface  of  the  lung,  which  is  drawn  away  from  the  contact  by  the 
elastic  parenchyma.  The  opening  of  the  windpipe  must  be  closed  in 
order  to  have  pressure  exerted  upon  the  surface  of  the  lungs.  Hence 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  lungs  being  irritated  by  the  position  of  the 
body ;  for  the  instant  any  part  of  the  chest  begins  to  approach  any 
part  of  the  lung,  it  recedes  from  the  approach.  Thus  first,  the  outer 
surface  of  the  lung  follows  and  spreads  in  all  directions,  toward  the 
inner  surface  of  the  enlarging  chest,  and  again  it  hurriedly  draws  it- 
self back  from  the  touch  of  the  surface  of  the  returning  chest. 
There  are,  therefore,  three  forces  engaged  in  the  operation  of  breath- 
ing. 1st.  The  inward  pressure.  2d.  The  outward  pressure ;  to  which 
may  be  sometimes  added,  the  force  of  the  contracting  expiratory 
muscles.  3d.  The  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  which  resists  the  reception 
but  assists  the  expulsion  of  air.  The  inward  pressure  tends  to  fill 
the  lungs ;  the  outward  pressure  tends  to  expel.  The  outward  pres- 
sure of  the  air  will  exactly  balance  the  inward  pressure.  The  out- 
ward pressure,  the  elasticity  and  the  contracting  force  of  the  expira- 
tory muscles,  overbalance  the  inward  pressure,  by  the  force  of  the 
elasticity  and  the  muscles.  The  air  is  therefore,  in  fact,  expelled  by 
the  last  two— usually  by  the  elasticity,  but  when  that  is  not  sufficient, 
the  force  of  the  muscles  is  added.  The  inward  pressure  cannot,  of 
course,  fill  the  lungs  against  the  action  of  the  outward  pressure,  the 
force  of  the  muscles,  and  the  elasticity  —  for  the  outward  pressure 
would  just  balance  the  inward  ;  nor  could  it,  against  the  force  of  the 
muscles  alone ;  the  force  of  the  muscles  and  the  outward  pressure 
must  therefore  be  removed,  when  it  will  be  able  to  overcome  the 
elasticity  and  fill  the  lung  out.  The  force  of  the  muscle  is  removed 
by  their  relaxation.  The  outward  pressure,  by  raising  the  ribs  and 
depressing  the  diaphragm  ;  when  of  course,  the  pleura  of  the  sides 
being  raised,  with  the  ribs,  away  from  the  sides  of  the  lungs,  there  is 
nothing  to  press  on  them  there,  and  the  diaphragm,  by  contracting, 
drawing  down  the  pleura  that  is  connected  with  it,  there  cannot  be 
any  thing  to  press  on  the  lungs  there — the  pressure  upon  their  out- 
sides  is,  therefore,  taken  away,  and  the  inward  pressure  left  to  com- 
bat with  the  elasticity  alone. 

[The  degree  of  elasticity  it  has  to  contend  with,  will  depend  upon 
the  natural  constitution,  it  being  much  greater  in  some  than  in  others. 
Upon  the  health,  which  would  of  course  affect  it;  and  upon  whether 
it  is  directly  increased  by  nervous  influences.  That  is,  whether  it  is 
increased  when  the  air  is  thrown  out,  and  diminished  when  air  is  re- 
ceived. The  state  of  the  breathing  in  asthma  and  several  complaints, 
inclines  me  to  think  there  is  a  control  of  this  kind  exerted  by  nervous 
agency.  Whether  it  be  so  or  not  when  the  system  is  in  health,  its 
action  is  most  admirable,  and  saves  a  great  amount  of  labor  on  the 
part  of  the  muscles,  as  also  does  the  simple  expedient  of  the  elasticity 
of  the  rib  cartilages,  for  if  the  expiratory  muscles  draw  them  down, 


HYGIENE   AND    THERAPEUTICS.  245 


Process  of  breathing. 

their  elasticity  assists  the  inspiratory  to  raise  the  chest ;  if  the  inspi- 
ratory  muscles  raise  them  above  the  medium  point,  their  elasticity 
acts  to  lighten  the  duty  of  the  expiratory  muscles.] 

"  How  wonderful,  how  complicate  is  man, 
How  passing  wonder  He  who  made  him  such  !" 

[The  lungs  do  not  hang  in  the  chest,  nor  are  they  supported  below, 
but  are  kept  in  their  place  by  simply  being  inclosed  in  the  chest,  and 
by  atmospheric  pressure.*] 

332.  The  action  of  the  breathing  apparatus  may  be  made 
and  continued  perfect,  by  leaving  the  chest  free  and  uncon- 
strained, that  it  may  rise  and  fall. 

[It  is  as  essential  that  the  chest  be  made  small  when  the  breath  is 
thrown  out,  as  that  it  should  be  made  large  when  it  is  drawn  in.  The 
absolute  size,  therefore,  of  the  chest  is  of  no  comparative  importance ; 
the  thing  is,  to  have  a  chest  that  is  very  movable.  Hence  there  must 
be  nothing  to  confine  the  shoulders  back,  or  any  part  of  the  chest  in 
one  position.] 

333.  The  action  of  the  breathing  apparatus  is  made  and 
continued  perfect,  by  leaving  the  abdomen  free  from  any 
pressure  or  restraint,  that  its  sides  may  easily  distend,  and 
the  diaphragm  easily  contract. 

[When  a  person  bends  forward,  the  diaphragm  contracts  much 
more  easily  than  when  he  is  straight,  because  the  sides  of  the  abdo- 
men are  relaxed.  If  a  person  have  inflammation  of  the  second  sto- 
mach, he  draws  up  the  lower  extremities,  and  raises  his  chest,  and 
neck,  and  head,  to  relax  the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  and  enable  the 
diaphragm  to  contract  without  pressing  so  hard  as  otherwise  on  the 
organs  of  the  abdomen.  When  a  person  wishes  to  throw  the  air  out, 
he  straightens  himself,  to  stretch  the  expiratory  muscles,  and  give 
the  greater  power  of  acting,  he  having  taken  in  air  when  he  was  in- 
clined forward.  Hence  nature  makes  a  man  who  is  consumptive, 
asthmatic,  or  sedentary,  crooked;  that  more  air  may  be  received 
with  ease,  and  it  would  be  unfortunate  for  these  persons  to  be  made 
straight,  while  their  disease  or  their  habits  continue.  They  are  each 
crooked  in  their  peculiar  way,  but  the  crookedness  has  not  produced 
the  disease,  but  the  disease  the  crookedness.  Cure  the  disease,  and 
if  not  too  late  in  life,  the  natural  form  will  be  restored.  Let  the  se- 
dentary man  take  plenty  of  exercise,  and  he  will  become  straight  with- 

*  What  an  absurdity,  then,  is  it  for  us  to  be  told  about  the  lungs  falling  down  from 
their  place,  and  that  supporters,  shoulder-braces,  and  all  those  things  which  keep  the 
body  in  one  position,  and  prevent  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  chest,  the  distension,  &c., 
of  the  abdomen,  are  for  our  good. 


246       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Importance  of  exercise. — The  air. 

out  an  effort,  and  he  cannot  in  any  other  way.  If  he  put  on  supports 
and  the  like,  he  will  produce  a  worse  deformity.  If  ladies,  therefore, 
wish  to  be  easy  and  graceful,  models  of  beauty  in  form  and  com- 
plexion, and  possess  that  greatest  of  earthly  blessings,  health,  let 
them  take  exercise,  dress  the  chest  free,  wear  all  the  clothing  sup- 
ported upon  the  shoulders,  and  the  abdomen  uncompressed. 

334.  The  breathing  apparatus  is  made  and  continued 
perfect  by  exercise. 

[Reading  aloud,  singing,  outdoor  exercise,  going  uphill  and  down, 
are  all  admirable,  and  should  be  daily  practised.  Those  who  live  in 
hilly  countries,  are  the  most  healthy  in  body  and  mind  of  any  people 
in  the  world.] 


CHAPTEE   IV. 
The  Air. 

[As  all  these  arrangements  have  been  made  for  the  reception  of  the 
air,  it  must  be  of  vital  consequence.] 

335.  The  atmosphere  is  composed  of  four-fifths  nitrogen 
and  one-fifth  oxygen,  and  about  one  part  in  two  thousand  of 
carbonic  acid  gas. 

336.  The  oxygen  is  the  useful  part  of  the  atmosphere. 

[So  far  as  we  can  judge,  the  nitrogen  is  of  use  merely  to  dilute  the 
oxygen.] 

337.  The  oxygen  is  continually  lost  from  the  air  that  is 
taken  into  the  lungs. 

[Only  about  one-sixth  of  the  air  that  comes  out  from  the  lungs  is 
oxygen.] 

338.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  is  continually  increased. 

[An  amount  of  carbonic  acid  about  equal  to  the  loss  of  the  oxygen 
is  breathed  out  from  the  lungs.] 

339.  The  carbonic  acid  is  a  deadly  poison. 

[Air  composed  of  one-tenth  of  it.  will  destroy  life.  If,  as  before 
stated,  the  experiment  be  made  of  breathing  out  the  air  from  the 
lungs  into  a  bottle,  it  will  extinguish  a  match.] 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  247 

Oxygen  of  use  in  purifying  the  blood  and  producing  heat. 

Inf.  Air  which  has  been  once  breathed  is  bad  in  two  respects :  it 
does  not  contain  enough  oxygen,  and  it  contains  too  much  carbonic  acid. 

[Where  the  carbonic  acid  is  formed  is  a  matter  of  doubt.  Some 
think  that  carbon  is  brought  in  the  blood  to  the  lungs,  where  it  unites 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Some  think  that  the  oxygen  unites  with 
some  parts  of  the  blood,  and  goes  with  it  to  all  parts  of  the  body, 
where  it  unites  with  carbon  and  forms  carbonic  acid,  which  comes 
with  the  blood  to  the  lungs,  and  is  expelled,  while  more  oxygen  is 
taken  in.  Both  classes  of  persons  are,  doubtless,  in  part  correct.  It 
makes  no  difference  about  the  practical  bearing  of  things.] 

340.  The  oxygen  is  of  use  in  two  respects  ;  it  causes  im- 
purities of  the  blood  to  be  removed,  and  heat  produced. 

[The  impurities  removed  by  the  agency  of  the  oxygen  are  very 
bad  in  their  effects  upon  all  parts  of  the  system,  but  more  especially 
the  nervous  system,  causing  a  person  to  feel  dull  and  heavy,  and  dis- 
inclined to  mental  or  physical  labor.  They  affect  not  only  the  beauty 
of  the  eye,  rendering  it  languid,  and  the  expression  of  the  counte- 
nance, rendering  it  listless,  but  also  they  destroy  the  complexion. 
Indeed,  if  they  be  wholly  retained  in  the  blood  for  five  minutes,  a 
person  dies.  Why  does  a  person  die  when  under  water  1  Merely  be- 
cause he  receives  no  air  into  his  lungs,  and  the  impurities  of  the  blood 
accumulate  so  much  in  a  few  minutes  that  he  dies.  No  person,  in 
any  class  of  life,  can  bear  to  be  without  air.] 

[As  heat  is  produced  by  the  action  of  oxygen,  a  fresh  supply  of  air 
is  constantly  needed  to  keep  the  body  warm.  A  great  deal  more  of 
it  would  be  needed  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather,  of  course,  and  so 
by  nature  it  is  ordered  to  be.  When  air  is  cold,  it  is  contracted,  and 
much  more  oxygen  passes  into  the  lungs,  when  they  are  filled,  than 
would  in  summer.  Again,  when  it  has  been  received  in  the  lungs,  it 
is  at  once  heated  and  rarified,  or  expanded,  and  comes  more  closely 
in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  air  cells,  and,  of  course,  acts  more 
effectually  on  the  blood.  Warm  air,  on  the  contrary,  is  rarified  when 
it  enters  the  lungs ;  and,  if  warmer  than  they,  contracts  by  being 
cooled,  and  produces  but  little  effect.  On  the  other  hand,  the  blood 
is  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  air ;  for,  when  it  is  cold,  the  kidneys  at 
once  work  the  water  off  the  blood  and  make  it  thicker,  and  more  fuel 
passes  through  the  lungs  in  a  given  length  of  time  ;  while,  in  a  warm 
day,  thirst  induces  us  to  drink,  and  the  blood  is  diluted.  The  liver  also 
must  in  summer  form  more  bile  for  vegetable  food,  than  in  winter 
for  more  concentrated,  and  therefore  it  works  off  some  of  the  carbon, 
which  in  winter  must  be  removed  almost  entirely  by  the  lungs.] 

[Thus,  by  this  most  beautiful  arrangement,  it  is  seen  that  every  per- 
son requires  fresh  pure  air  every  day  of  the  year,  and  also  night.  There 
is  no  night  air  so  cold,  nor  air  so  damp  or  so  pestilential,  that  it  is  as 
bad  and  health-destroying  as  air  which  has  been  once  breathed. 
Houses  shops,  school-rooms,  halls,  churches,  but  above  all.  bed-rooms, 
should  be  ventilated,  and  perfectly  so.  No  person  should  live  in,  or 
sleep  in  poisonous  air,  such  as  he  himself  will  make  if  he  sleep  in  a 


248       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

Importance  of  breathing  pure  air. 

close  room,  though  it  may  be  a  large  one.  The  wind  should  never  be 
allowed  to  blow  upon  a  person,  day  or  night ;  but  this  can  easily  be 
prevented,  and  yet  the  window  left  open.  There  is  no  danger  of  per- 
sons taking  cold  from  breathing  pure  air :  it  is  one  of  the  best  ways 
to  prevent  colds.  Nor  is  there  any  danger  of  commencing  the  good 
habit  of  breathing  pure  air  at  any  time  of  the  year.  But  especially 
should  pure  air  be  breathed  by  the  sick.  They  may  not  bear  cold  air, 
for  it  may  remove  more  heat,  or  require  more  heat  to  warm  it,  than 
the  system  can  produce ;  but  they  must  have  pure  air.  So,  also,  must 
an  old  person.  An  infant  may  suffer  from  cold  air,  and  should  receive 
warm  pure  air.] 

[But  there  is  another  reason  for  breathing  pure  air.  There  is,  at 
each  expiration,  a  certain  amount  of  water  breathed  out  from  the 
lungs ;  with  this  the  air  of  a  close  room  is  soon  saturated,  and  less  will 
be  removed  ;  hence  we  need  to  have  all  our  rooms  ventilated.  On  the 
other  hand,  sometimes  a  person,  by  too  great  heat  in  a  room,  causes 
too  dry  a  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  moisture  is  removed  too 
rapidly  from  the  lungs ;  on  account  of  which  pure  air  which  shall  be 
more  moist  than  the  parched  air  of  the  room  is  required.] 

ADDENDA. 

Coal,  when  it  burns,  produces  carbonic  gas,  which  is  as  poisonous  to  breathe  as 
if  it  had  come  from  the  lungs.  This  gas  is  frequently  found  in  rooms  where  the 
draught  of  the  grate  is  not  good,  or  where,  by  a  damper,  it  is  checked.  Better,  by  far, 
have  the  smoke  of  a  wood  fire,  than  the  deadly  gas  of  coal.  Pans  of  coals  are  some- 
times very  wrongfully  burned  in  a  room,  to  warm  it,  and  have  been  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing hundreds  of  deaths.  When  death  is  produced  by  this  cause,  or  by  drowning  or 
hanging,  or  by  stoppage  of  breath  in  any  way,  two  things  are  to  be  considered  : — 
1st.  The  body  will  suffer  for  want  of  the  heat  the  lungs  cannot  produce;  therefore 
the  person  must  be  warmed,  and  kept  warm  with  warm  clothes,  rubbing,  &c.,  though 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  person,  for  as  his  lungs  are  useless,  rubbing  will 
not  at  first  increase  the  heat.  2d.  He  suffers  because  the  blood  contains  impurities. 
This  evil  must  be  corrected  by  causing  breathing,  which  is  to  be  done  in  this  way  : 
All  rough  handling  or  holding  up  the  person  with  the  head  down,  must  be  avoided! 
He  should  be  gently  placed  with  the  legs  drawn  up,  and  the  head  and  chest  a  little 
raised.  With  several  hands  upon  the'side  and  front  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  let 
gentle  but  quite  forcible  pressure  be  slowly  made,  then  suddenly  let  go  at  once,  that  the 
elasticity  of  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  may  take  off  the  outward  pressure,  and  allow  air 
to  be  forced  in.  Again,  at  once,  make  pressure  and  remove  it,  and  so  do  for  a  long 
time.*  If  air  cannot  pass  in,  the  windpipe  should  be  cut  open. 


CHAPTER    V. 

Voice. 
34    Tilt  Voice  is  produced  by  the  action  of  five  classes  of 

*  Some  persons,  very  unphilosophically,  think  that,  with  a  pair  of  bellows  an  ad- 
vantage could  be  gained,  and  would  lose  time  in  hunting  them  up  and  applyin"-  them 
They  would  not  be  of  the  slightest  benefit,  but  would  rather  do  harm.  It  can  at  once 
be  seen  what  they  have  to  overcome  in  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  the  cartilages  and 
the  organs  ot  the  abdomen  and  the  external  pressure  ;  and  it  would  be  found,  with  a 
common  pair  of  bellows,  a  sufficiently  hard  task  to  fill  a  pair  of  lungs,  if  they  were  out 
of  the  body,  and  nothing  but  their  elasticity  to  overcome. 


HYGIENE    AND    THERAPEUTICS.  249 

The  respiratory  apparatus,  &c. 

organs:  the  respiratory  organs — the  epiglottis — the  larynx 
and  vocal  cords — the  muscles  of  the  throat — the  lips,  teeth, 
and  tongue. 

[  The  respiratory  apparatus  is  of  use  by  receiving  and  expelling  air 
with  more  or  less  force.] 

[  The  epiglottis  is  a  part  underneath  the  back  part  of  the  tongue, 
and  directly  over  the  back  part  of  the  tongue ;  against  it,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  certain  muscles,  the  larynx  is  drawn  up,  and  its  opening  closed ; 
meanwhile  the  action  of  the  expiratory  muscles  attempt  to  force  out 
the  air,  and  the  larynx  is  suddenly  dropped  or  drawn  down,  and  the 
air  gushes  out.] 

The  larynx  is  composed  of  a  framework  of  several  pieces  of  curious 
shape,  curiously  put  together,  and  moved  on  each  other  by  the  ac- 
tion of  appropriate  muscles.  The  vocal  cords  are  two  in  number, 
stretched  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  inside  of  the  larynx ;  near 
its  centre  is  an  opening  like  a  button-hole  existing  between  them ; 
from  thence  to  the  sides  of  the  larynx  a  membrane  is  stretched,  so 
that,  looking  down  the  windpipe,  it  appears  closed  across,  except  the 
slit  in  the  centre ;  through  this  the  air  gushes,  and  by  the  cords  is 
thrown  into  vibration,  the  nature  of  which  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  opening,  the  tensity  of  the  cords,  the  character  and  capacity  of 
the  chest,  and  the  character  and  condition  of  the  parts  through  which 
the  air  afterwards  passes.] 

[  The  muscles  of  the  back  mouth  have  a  very  great  effect  on  the 
voice,  according  as  they  enlarge  or  diminish  the  size  and  alter  the 
form  of  the  passage  which  they  control.] 

[  The  lips,  tongue,  and  teeth  are  useful  in  closing  the  air  passage 
when  it  is  desirable  to  produce  certain  sounds,  and  suddenly  opening 
it ;  thus  peculiar  vibrations  are  caused.] 

[Thus  are  produced  three  classes  of  sounds :  1st,  Those  essentially 
produced  in  the  larynx,  called  tones.] 

Illus.  The  sounds  of  the  letter  a,  also  all  the  vowel  sounds. 

[2d.  Those  sounds  essentially  modified  by  the  muscles  in  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth,  and  called  subtones.] 

Illus.  The  sound  of  b,  m,  1,  &c. 

[3d.  Those  sounds  produced  in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth,  and 
called  aspirates  (whispers)]. 

Illus.  The  sound  of  t,  f,  s,  &c. 

[All  these  sounds  are  combined  in  the  word  tone :  1st,  aspirate ; 
2d,  tone ;  3d,  subtone.  Each  sound  is  produced  by  the  combined 
action  of  muscles,  many  or  few.  In  speaking  a  syllable,  we  pronounce 
several  sounds  in  rapid  succession.  In  speaking  a  word,  we  pronounce 
several  syllables  in  rapid  succession.  To  speak  with  ease,  we  must 
accustom  ourselves  to  pronounce  what  are  called  the  elementary 
sounds  of  our  language  with  perfect  distinctness,  and  at  any  and  every 
pitch  of  the  voice;  and,  as  every  sound  is  produced  by  the  combined 
action  of  many  muscles  they  must  be  carefully  exercised  by  the  most 
assiduous  practice ;  and  when  perfect  single  sounds  can  be  produced, 


250       ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY. 

The  respiratory  apparatus,  &c. 

the  muscles  which  produce  different  sounds  must  be  combined  to- 
gether in  successive  action,  in  every  possible  manner,  when  a  person 
will  be  able  easily  to  pronounce  every  language  or  tongue  used  among 
men ;  and,  among  the  rest,  his  own.  Children  should  be  taught  to  read 
'"  by  note,"  not  by  rote.  The  most  skilful  musician  would  have  been 
a  bungler  always,  had  he  not  for  a  long  time  practised  the  muscles 
of  his  hand  on  the  simpler  movements,  until  they  were  skilled  in 
combining  their  action  in  any  possible  way  which  any  combination  of 
notes  would  require.] 

[Daily  and  thorough  exercise  of  the  organs  of  speech  is  necessary, 
that  they  may  be  patient  under  any  labor  that  is  imposed  upon  them.] 

[As  the  muscles  of  speech  are  dependent  on  the  mind  for  the  force 
that  contracts  them,  great  attention  must  be  bestowed  on  the  state 
of  the  mind ;  for  as  that  is,  so  will  the  expressions  of  sounds  uttered 
be.  A  child  should  never  read  what  it  does  not  understand,  nor  should 
any  thing  ever  be  read  or  said  until  the  mind  is  in  harmony  with  the 
idea  that  is  to  be  expressed ;  for,  until  the  emotions  of  the  mind  be 
right,  the  actions  of  the  muscles  can  never  be  expressive.] 

[Good  health  of  the  system  generally  is  necessary,  in  order  that 
the  muscles  may  be  in  a  good  condition  to  be  acted  on,  and  that  the 
nervous  system  may  be  in  a  good  state  to  act  upon  them.] 


BOOK  IV. 


ORGANS    OF    EXCRETION. 

[Sufficient  has  already  been  said  ot  the  lungs  as  excreting  organs, 
and  also  of  the  kidneys  and  liver,  therefore  it  remains  for  us  to  con- 
sider the  Second  Stomach,  Colon  and  Skin.] 


CHAPTER   I. 
Second  Stomach,   Colon,  etc. 

343.  The  duty  of  these  organs  is  twofold ;  to  remove  the 
waste  substance  from  the  food,  and  cast  it  out  of  the  sys- 
tem ;    and  to  separate  from   the  blood  certain  of  its  sub- 
stance, and  remove  it  from  the  body. 

344.  To  preserve  a  perfect  state  of  action  in  these  or- 
gans  sufficient  waste  food  must  be  taken  to  furnish  them . 
with  a  certain  bulk  of  material  to  act  upon.     Exercise  is  also 
necessary  to  charge  the  blood  with  substance  to  be  excreted. 
Daily,  at  some  regular  hour,  the  colon  should  be  solicited, 
whether  it  demands  it  or  not,  to  remove  from  the  body  what 
has  been  removed  from  the  blood.     The  skin  must  be  kept 
warm,  otherwise  the  blood  will  be  driven  inward,  and  sum- 
mer complaints  will  be  produced,  especially  in  children  in 
summer-time.      And  the  clothing    must  be  free  upon  the 
abdomen. 

[The  clothing  of  infants  and  of  females  is  very  injudiciously  made 
in  most  cases.  The  colon  passing  above  where  the  clothing  is  made 
to  exert  the  greatest  pressure,  its  contents  are  prevented  from  passing 


252  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    PATHOLOGY. 

Paints  and  powder  are  injurious  to  the  skin. 

freely  along,  and  obstructions  occur  in  the  first  part  of  the  colon,  in 
the  right  side  and  in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  sometimes  giving 
rise  to  the  most  alarming  diseases.  No  bands  should  ever  be  put 
round  this  part  of  the  body  in  case  of  young  or  old.] 


CHAPTEK    n. 

The  Skin. 

345.  The  skin  is  composed  of  three  layers  :  the  external 
or  cuticle,  epidermis  or  scarf  skin — the  middle  or  rete- 
mucosurn — the  internal,  cutis.  dermis,  or  true  skin. 

[The  cuticle  does  not  contain  any  bloodvessels  or  nerves,  as  is  per- 
ceivable when  it  is  raised  in  case  of  a  blister,  or  pricked.  &c.  It  serves 
as  a  protection  to  the  parts  below,  and  should  be  free  from  cracks  or 
chaps,  pliable,  elastic,  and  more  or  less  thick  (calloused)  as  every  part 
is  subjected  to  more  or  less  pressure.  In  it  there  are  a  great  multitude 
of  minute  holes,  through  which  the  hairs  and  fluids  of  the  surface 
come  up  from  the  layers  beneath.] 

[  The  retemucosum  is  not  by  many  now  considered  as  a  separate 
layer  from  the  others.  In  it  the  chief  part  of  the  coloring  matter 
that  causes  the  complexion  is  found  deposited.  In  what  particular 
way.  or  from  what  particular  part  of  the  blood,  or  why  in  one  case  it 
is  of  one  sort,  and  in  another  case  it  is  of  another,  is  not  known.  It 
is.  without  doubt,  a  part  of  the  whole  constitution,  and  necessarily  of 
one  kind  or  another,  in  accordance  with  the  wants  of  the  whole  con- 
stitution for  we  find  certain  general  characteristics  of  constitution, 
health,  disease,  &c.,  as  well  as  of  disposition  and  intellect,  connected 
with  certain  colors  of  the  skin.  And  by  changing  the  complexion 
alone,  the  whole  character  of  the  constitution  would  doubtless  be 
changed.] 

I/if. — It  may  be  of  much  importance,  that  a  person  produce  the 
best  possible  color  or  complexion  of  the  kind  Nature  intended  should 
belong  to  an  individual ;  and  to  change  the  action  of  light,  heat,  &c., 
upon  the  skin  by  means  of  paints  different  from  those  natural  to  the 
skin  many  have  very  injurious  effects  on  the  whole  constitution. 

[Paints  or  powders,  applied  to  the  skin  have  several  very  injurious 
effects.  They  asorb  the  oil  which  is  nc-oJed  upon  the  surface,  and 
thus  produce  a  dry,  harsh  state  of  the  skin,  and  soon  make  the  skin 
dingy  and  lose  its  brightness.  Nothing  can  ruin  the  complexion  of  a 
woman  faster. 

[The  paint  of  the  skin  is  deposited  from  the  blood  and  favorably 
acted  upon  by  the  air.] 


HYGIENE   AND   THERAPEUTICS.  257 

bathing,  rubbing,  &c. 

serve  a  healthy  circulation  of  blood  in  the  skin,  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, since  the  whole  health  of  the  skin  not  only,  but  the  health 
of  every  part  of  the  body,  the  state  of  the  mind,  and  the  beauty  of  a 
person,  depends  upon  it.  Therefore  we  may  recapitulate  in  brief] 

[Clothing.  This  should  be  such  as  is  most  agreeable  for  a  person 
to  wear.  For  one  person  flannel,  for  another  linen,  is  best.  Always 
wear  enough,  so  that  there  shall  not  be  felt  the  slightest  chill.  It 
must  be  often  changed,  as  the  effete  substance  from  the  body  is  load- 
ing it  with  unhealthy  matter.  As  often  as  twice  per  week  whatever 
is  worn  next  the  skin  should  be  changed  altogether.  That  which  is 
worn  during  the  day  should  be  changed  during  the  night,  and  hung 
up  to  air.  The  sick  especially  should  have  frequent  changes  or 
clothing.  The  clothing  of  a  bed  should  be  thrown  open,  and  aired 
for  several  hours  every  morning,  and  a  sick  person  should  be  gently 
changed  from  one  bed  to  another  every  six  hours,  except  he  be 
asleep,  and  the  bed  he  has  left  aired.  He  must  not  be  put  upon  a 
cold  bed.] 

[Bathing.  We  are  Constantly  in  a  bath  of  air ;  whether  this  should 
be  warm  or  cold,  depends  upon  whether  the  system  can  bear  the  loss 
of  heat  or  not.  If  a  person  feel  restless  at  night,  he  will  find  it  a 
good  thing  to  throw  open  the  bed  clothing  to  air,  and  to  walk  about 
in  his  chamber  for  a  few  moments ;  as  soon  as  he  feels  the  least  chill, 
he  should  cover  himself  again.  The  kind  of  water  bathing  a  person 
should  use,  depends  upon  whether  the  system  can  bear  the  loss  of 
heat  or  not.  If  it  can.  and  reaction  is  at  once  produced,  cold  baths 
of  air  and  water  are  beneficial,  since  they  accustom  the  nervous  sys- 
tem to  action,  from  which  good  must  result.] 

[Rubbing  and  exercise  of  the  system  should  be  frequently  done, 
and  always  when  there  is  any  chilliness,  in  addition  to  an  investment 
in  more  clothing.] 

[The  exercise  of  all  the  organs  benefits  the  skin,  if  it  be  not  carried 
to  that  degree  which  will  tend  to  withdraw  the  blood  from  the  skin, 
when  it  is  injurious,  when  it  should  cease,  and  attention  be  paid  to 
the  skin  to  draw  it  back  again.  The  exercise  of  any  organ  should 
not.  therefore,  be  continued  till  any  part  of  the  skin  feel  cold,  or  even 
a  chill.] 


CONCLUSION. 

The  Organic  Nervous  System. 

346.  This  is  also  called  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 
The  source  of  the  influence  exerted  by  this  system  is  not 
known ;  there  are  probably  several  sources. 

347.  Upon    each   side   of  the   back-bone   and   a  little 
distance  from  it  on  the  inside,  there  is  found  a  chain  of 
nervous  substance.      It  consists  of  small  lumps  of  grayish 
colored  nervous  substance  called  ganglia,  connected  by  mi- 
nute white  cords,  containing  also  gray  substance.     From  the 
ganglia,  connections  extend  to  the  neighboring  nerves  of  the 
spinal  system. 

348.  Nerves  from  this  chain  pass  off  on  the  large  blood- 
vessels, as   some  believe,  to  the  extremities  of  the  arteries, 
but  this  is  uncertain. 

349.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  is  a  nervous  system 
for  the  purpose  of  harmonizing  the  action  of  all  parts  of  the 
body,  but  of  this  there  is  no  proof. 

350.  All  that  can  at  present  be  said  is,  that  there  is  an 
arrangement  in  the  system  by  which  the  action  of  every  part 
produces  an  influence  on  every  other  part.     By  this  arrange- 
ment, the  action  of  every  part  in  health  is  increased  or  dimin- 
ished as  the  wants  of  every  part  and  the  whole  system  may 
require  ;  of  which  there  have  been  given  so  many  illustrations 
in  the  preceding  pages,  it  is  hoped  that  the  reader  has  arrived 
at  the  conclusion,  that  the  physical  suffering  which  he  endures 
is  not  the  fault  of  the  organization  of  the  system,  but  of  him- 
self;  in  not  learning  and  observing  those  wise  laws  established 
by  the  Creator  for  the  happiness  of  those  who  observe  them. 


LKAVITT,   TROW    &   CO.'s    CATALOSUE,    191    BROADWAY,    NEW-YORK. 

SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

School  Books  by  the  hundred,  dozen,  or  single  copy. 

COUNTRY  MERCHANTS,  TEACHERS, 

and  all  others,  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  give  us  a  call, -as  we  have  always 
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PAPER  AND  QUILLS. 


PRIMERS. 


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Fowle's  do. 

Pond's  Murray's  do. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Mitchell's  Geography  and  Atlas. 
Do.        Primary  Geography. 
Do.        High  School  Geography  and 

Atlas,  in  press. 
Do.        Outline  Maps. 
Do.        Key  to  do, 
Do.        Geographical  Reader. 


30 


Smith's  Geography  and  Atlas. 

Do.     Primary  Geography. 
Olney's  Geography  and  Atlas. 

Do.     Introduction  to  do 
Huntington's  Geography  and  Atlas. 
Maltebrun's  do.  do. 

Adams'  do.  do. 


fcEAVITT,    TROW    &    CO.'s     CATALOGUE,    1^1    BROADWAY,    NEW-YORK. 


Fowle's  Geography. 
Field's  do. 

Boston  School  Atlas. 
Worcester's  Geography  and  Atlas. 


Morse' 
Parley's 
National 
Village  School 
Hall's  Child's 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


Woodbridge    &  Willard's    Geography 

and  Atlas. 

Hart's  do. 

Woodbridge' s  New  do. 

Goldsmith's  Geographical  View  of  the 

World. 

Smiley's  Geography  and  Atlas. 
Willett's  do.  do. 

Brinsmade's  Geography. 


Mitchell's  Ancient  Geography  &  Atlas. 
Butler's          do.  do. 

Do.  do.          Atlas. 

Willard's       do.          Geography. 


Willard's  Ancient  Atlas. 

Worcester's    Ancient    Classical     and 

Scripture  Geography  and  Atlas. 
Robinson's  Scripture  Geography. 


HISTORY, 


Willard's  History  of  the  United  States, 
8vo. 

Do.  do.        School  ed. 

Do.      Universal  History,  8vo. 
Frost's  History  of  the  U.  States,  12mo. 

Do.  do. 

Wilson's       do. 
Hale's  do. 

Bancroft's    do. 
Davenport's  do. 
White's  Universal  History. 
Ty  tier's        L'O.  do. 

Do.     Elements  of  do. 
Grimshaw's  History  of  the  U.  States. 

Do.  do.  England. 

Do.  do.  Rome. 

Do.  do.  Greece. 

Do.  do.  France. 

Do. 
Worcester's 

History. 

Sacred  History  for  Schools. 
Robinson's  History  of  England. 
Child's  United  States. 
Olney's       do.        do. 
Goodrich'sdo.        do. 

Do.          Questions  to  do. 
Emerson's  United  States. 
Parley's  Common  School  History. 

Do.      Universal  do. 

Do.      History  of  the  World. 

Do.      1st,  2d,  and  3d  Books  of  His- 
tory. 

Do.     America,    Europe,    Asia,   and 

Africa,  16mo. 
Goldsmith's  History  of  Greece. 

Do.  do.  Rome. 

Pinnock's  Goldsmith's  Greece. 

Do.  do.  Rome. 

do.  England. 


.  oiuiea,  ijfriuu* 

do.         18mo. 
do. 
do. 
do.  abridged, 
do. 
>ry. 
.    2  vols. 
.     12mo. 

iuiumr  a  u  i 
Keightley's 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Russell's 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

iivfcisui  rais  y,  •*  vuis.,  IAIUU. 

History  of  Greece, 
do.          Rome, 
do.         Roman  Empire, 
do.         England, 
do.         United  States. 
do.         England. 
do.        France. 
do.         Greece  &  Rome. 

Questions  to  above. 
Ancient     and 


Modern 


Emerson's  Outlines  of  Hi-story. 
Brackenbridge's  Late  War. 
Barber's  General  History. 
Lardner's  Outlines  of  History. 


31 


Guizot's  History  of  Civilization. 
Do.  do.       English  Revolution. 

Taylor's  Manual  of  Ancient  and  Mod- 
ern History,  8vo. 

Arnold's  Lectures  on  Modern  History. 

Michelet's  History  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, for  Schools. 

Schmidt's  History  of  Rome. 

Whelpley's  Compend. 

Robbins'  Outlines  of  History. 

Robbins'  (Miss)  Grecian  History. 
Do.       English      do. 
Do.       Scripture    do. 

Outlines  of  Sacred* History. 

Goodrich's  Eccl.          do. 

Heeren's  Ancient  Greece. 

Goodrich's    Pictorial    History  of  the 

United  States. 

Do.  do.  do.      France. 

Do.  do.  do.      England 

Do.  do.  do.      Greece. 

Do.  do.  do.     Rome. 

Outline  Series,  viz  : 

Outlines  of  American  History. 

Do.  English         do. 

Do.  Roman         do. 

Do.          Grecian       do. 


LJCAVITT,   TROW    &   CO.'S    CATALOGUE,   194   BROADWAY,    NEW-YORK. 


MATHEMATICS. 


tDavies'  First  Lessons  in  Algebra. 

Do.        do.        do.  Geometry. 

Do.        Practical  do. 

Do.        Legendre's  do. 

Do.        Analytical  do. 

Do.        Descriptive  do. 

Do.        Bourdon's  Algebra. 

Do.        Diff.  and  Integral  Calculus. 

Do.        Surveying. 

Do.        Shades  and  Shadows. 
tBonnycastle's  Algebra. 

tDo.  Mensuration. 

tGrund's  Algebra. 

Do.        Geometry. 
Hoi  brook's    do. 
Smith  &  Biot's  Analytical  do. 

Do.  &  Duke's  Algebra. 
Perkins'  Elementary  do. 

Do.      Higher          do. 
tColburn's  do. 

tTower's  Intellectual  do. 
Playfair's  Euclid. 
Simson's      do. 
tDay's  Algebra. 

tDo.    do.        abridged. 

Do.  Trigonometry. 

Do.   Mensuration. 

Do.   Surveying. 

Do.    Mathematics. 

Do.   Legendre's  Geometry,  abridged. 
Bridge's  Conic  Sections. 
tBridge's  Algebra. 
Harvey's      do. 
Clark's         do. 
Flint's  Surveying. 
Gibson's        do. 


tGummere's  Surveying. 
tBailey's  Algebra. 
Ryan's         do. 
Williams'     do. 
Tot  ten's        do. 
tSherwin's  do. 
Smyth's        do. 
Pierce's        do. 

Do.     Geometry. 

Do.    Curves,  Functions,  and   Mo- 
tions, 3  vols.,  viz : 

vol.  1,  Analytical  Geom.  and    DifE 

Calculus. 

"    2.  Integral  Calculus  and  Analyt- 
ical Mechanics. 

!<   3.  Application    to  Physics   and 
Astronomy. 

Do.    Trigonometry. 

Do.    Treatise  on  Sound. 
Introduction  to  Geometry  and  Science 

of  Forms. 
Church's  Calculus. 
McCartey's    do. 
Nulty's     Geometry. 
Elements  of    do. 
Hackley's  Trigonometry. 
Bartlett's  Optics. 
Brewster's    do. 
Kendall's  Walker's  Geometry. 
Walker's  do 

Young's  Algebra. 

Do.      Analytical  Geometry. 

Do.      Integral  Calculus. 

Do.      Trigonometry. 

Do.      Mechanics. 


t  Marked  thus  can  be  obtained  with  key. 


Mahan's  Civil  Engineering. 
Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 

Do.          Text        do. 
Boncharlat's  Mechanics. 
Ren  wick's  do. 


Lardner  on  Steam  Engine. 
Renwick         •  do.        do. 
Hodge  do.        do. 

Millwright's  Guide. 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


Olmsted's  Philosophy,  8vo. 

Do.         School  edition,  12mo. 

Do.         Rudiments,  18mo. 
Comstock's  Philosophy. 

Do.  do.  abridged. 

Coates'  Philosophy. 

Do.     First  Lessons  in  do. 
Euler's  Philosophy. 
Grund's        do. 
Parker's       do. 
Phelps*        do. 


Philosophy  for  Beginners. 
Johnson's  Moffatt's  Philosophy. 
Gale's  do. 

Jones'  do. 

Coffin's  do. 

Blake's  do. 

Swift's  1st  Lessons  in  do. 

Do.    *2d       do.          do. 

Do.    Outlines  of       do. 
Renwick's  do. 


LEAVITT,    TROW    &    CO.'s    CATALOGUE,    191    BROADWAY,    NEW-YORK. 


MORAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


Uphara's  Mental  Philosophy,  2  vols. 
Do.  do.  do.        abridged. 

Do.      on  the  Will. 

Cousin's  Psychology. 

Rauch's  do. 

Combe's  Moral  Philosophy. 

Smellies'  Philosophy  of  Natural  His- 
tory. 

Pa  ley's  Natural  Theology,  illustrated 
edition. 


Locke's  Essays  on  the  Understanding. 
Fergus'  Class  Book  of  Nat'l  Theology. 
Abercrombie's  intellectual  Philosophy. 

Do.  Moral  do. 

Stewart's  Philosophy  of  the  Mind. 
Schmucker's  Mental  Philosophy. 
Sawyer's  do.  do. 

Paley's  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy. 
Parkhurst's  Moral  do. 


CHEMISTRY. 


Johnston's  Turner's  Chemistry. 
Turner's  Chemistry,  new  edition,  8vo. 
Kane's  Chemistry. 
Johnson's  Motfatt's  Chemistry. 
Conversations  on  do. 

Elements  of  do. 

Comstock's  do. 

Do.          Young  Chemist. 
Greene's  First  Lessons  in  Chemistry. 

Do.        Second    do.  do. 

Liebig's  Animal  do. 

Do.     Agricultural  do. 


Beck's  Chemistry. 

Renwick's    do. 

Smith's 

Jones' 

Grund's 

Silliman's 

P  helps' 


do. 

do. 

do. 

do.  in  press. 

do. 

Chemistry  for  Beginners. 
Gray's  Chemistry. 
Towne's          do. 
Webster's       do. 


RHETORIC  AND  LOGIC. 


Jamieson's  Rhetoric. 

Do.         Logic. 
Whateley's  Rhetoric. 

Do.          Logic. 
Tappan's        do. 
Boy  d's  Rhetoric. 
Mills'  Logic. 

Do.  Blair's  Rhetoric. 


Hedge's  Logic. 

Blair's  Rhetoric,  University  edition. 

Do.        do.        18mo.  School  do. 
Newman's  Rhetoric. 
True's  Logic. 
Parker's  do. 
Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric; 


ASTRONOMY. 


Olmsted's  Astronomy,  8vo. 

Do.  do.       Mason's  Supt.  8vo. 

Do.      School  Astronomy. 

Do.      Rudiments. 
Norton's  Astronomy,  new  edition. 
Grund's  Astronomy. 
Cambridge      do. 
Elements  of    do. 
Outlines  of     do. 
Burritt's  Geography  and  Atlas  of  the 

Heavens. 

Gummere's  Astronomy. 
Walker's  do. 

Olmsted's  Letters  on  do. 


Kendall's  Uranography. 

Do.   First  Book  of  Astronomy. 
Guy  &  Keith's  Astronomy. 
Ryan's  do. 

Blake's  do. 

Herschell's  do. 

Vose's  School  do. 

Clarke's  Elements  of  do. 
Astronomy  for  Beginners. 
Wilkins'  Astronomy. 
Parley's  Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars. 
Dick's  Practical  Astronomer. 

Do.  Celestial  Scenery. 

Do.  Sidereal  Heavens. 


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JAN  5     REC'O  -5  Pljj 

General  Library 
LD  21A—  30m—  5,  '75                        University  of  California 
(S5877L)                                                Berkeley 

